Course

Quantitative Research Methods

 Introduction to Educational Research

• Research or Re-Search?
• Why Research?
• How to Research?
 Introduction to Educational Research

Research or Re-Search?
• Research is an important means of creating
new knowledge by investigating a new
problem or phenomenon
• Re-search: subject matter is already known
but, for one reason or another, needs to be
studied again and validating it.
 Introduction to Educational Research

Why Research?
• Answer question
• Solve problems
• Develop new insights
• Explore a wide array of possibilities.
 Ways of Knowing
• Five ways we can know something
– Personal experience
– Tradition
– Experts and authorities
– Logic
• Inductive
• Deductive
– The scientific method
 The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
• A systematic approach which enables us to
explain, predict and/or control phenomenon-The
Scientific Method
• This involves the acquisition of knowledge and
the development and testing of theory
• The use of the scientific method is more efficient
and reliable than any other source of knowledge
 The Scientific Method
• The scientific method is a body of techniques for
investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge,
or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
• Application of Scientific methods and techniques to
understand and enhance the teaching and learning
process.
• To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is
commonly based on empirical or measurable
evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
 The Scientific Method
• A cyclic process comprising of sequential steps
– Recognition and definition of problem
– Formulation of hypothesis
– Collection of data
– Analysis of data
– Drawing and stating conclusion
 The Scientific Method
• Limitations of the scientific method
– Inability to answer value-based questions
involving “should”
– Inability to capture the full richness and
complexities of the participants
– Limitations of our measurement instruments
– Ethical and legal responsibilities
 What is Quantitative Research?
• Aliaga and Gunderson (2000) describe quantitative research methods as, “Explaining
phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based
methods (in particular statistics)”.
• The specificity of quantitative research lies in collecting numerical data and then analyzing
using mathematically based methods.
• In order to be able to use mathematically based methods, our data have to be in numerical
form
• But this characteristic severely limit the usefulness of quantitative research as there are many
phenomena we might want to look at, but which don’t seem to produce any quantitative data.
• In fact, relatively few phenomena in education actually occur in the form of ‘naturally’
quantitative data.
• However, research does provide us this flexibility to collect data that do not naturally appear in
quantitative form can be collected in a quantitative way.
• We do this by designing research instruments aimed specifically at converting phenomena that
don’t naturally exist in quantitative form into quantitative data, which we can analyze
statistically
• Using the right data analysis tools is based on using the right research design and data
collection instruments
Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Realism
• Realists take the view that what research does is to uncover an existing reality. ‘The
truth is out there’ and it is the job of the researcher to use objective research
methods to uncover that truth.
• This means that the researcher needs to be as detached from the research as
possible, and use methods that maximize objectivity and minimize the involvement
of the researcher in the research.
Positivism
• Positivism is the most extreme form of this world view.
• According to positivism, the world works according to fixed laws of cause and
effect.
• Scientific thinking is used to test theories about these laws, and either reject or
provisionally accept them.
• In this way, we will finally get to understand the truth about how the world works.
• By developing reliable measurement instruments, we can objectively study the
physical world.
Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Positivism
• However, this view that there is a true reality out there that
we can measure completely objectively is problematic.
• We are all part of the world we are observing, and cannot
completely detach ourselves from what we are researching.
• What is being studied, and what findings are produced, are
influenced by the beliefs of the people doing the research
and the political/social climate at the time the research is
done.
• In contrast to the realist view that the truth is out there and
can be objectively measured and found through research,
Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Subjectivism
• Subjectivists point to the role of human subjectivity in the process of
research.
• According to Subjectivism, reality is not ‘out there’ to be objectively and
dispassionately observed, but is at least, in part, constructed by the
observer
• The process of our observing reality changes and transforms it according to
the context, and therefore subjectivists may also be called are relativistic.
• All truth can only be relative, and is never definitive, as the positivist
claims.
• The extreme relativist position is obviously as problematic as the extreme
positivistic one, as it would in theory deny every reality which is beyond
the social consensus.
• Very few people following either of the paradigms hold the extreme views.
 Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Post-positivism
• Post-positivists accept the critique of traditional positivism that has been presented by
the subjectivists, without going so far as to reject any notion of realism.
• Post-positivists accept that reality cannot be observed as totally objective and
disinterested outsiders, and accept that the natural sciences do not provide the model
for all social research.
• However, they do believe in the possibility of there being an objective reality
considering that they will never be able to totally uncover that reality through
research
• They believe that they should try to approximate that reality as best as they can, all
the while realizing that their own subjectivity is shaping that reality.
• Rather than finding the truth, post-positivists will try to represent reality as best they
can.
• In contrast to positivists, post-positivists believe that research can never be certain.
Rather than focusing on certainty and absolute truth, post-positivist social science
focuses on confidence – how much can we rely on our findings?
 Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Experiential Realism
• A second world view or epistemology that underlies the work of
some quantitative researchers is called experiential realism.
• Experiential realism claims that reality cannot be observed in a
purely objective way, as observer’s perception itself influences
what is being observed and measured.
• However, experiential realists believe that there is a limit to
subjectivity by the fact that limited numbers of schemas are
used to formulate views of the world.
• This is because perception is ‘embodied’ and observation cannot
be passive, but actively interacted with the world through mind
and body.
 Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Experiential Realism
• Experiential realists see the use of metaphor as crucial to make sense
of the world around them.
• One of the main metaphors is the subject–object schema, which
divides the world into objects (things) and subjects (people).
• This metaphor has its origins in the fact that while dealings with the
world it is observed that there is a distinction between an external
world consisting of edges, surfaces and textures that do not belong to
the researcher, and there are those things that belong to the
researcher.
• As we move around our world, the objects remain invariant.
• Science, according to this view, is an activity that is based on this
subject–object schema (Mulaik, 1995).
 Foundations of Quantitative Research Methods

Pragmatism
• Many researchers, both quantitative and qualitative take a pragmatist approach to research,
using different methods depending on the research question they are trying to answer.
• In some cases, this will lead them to quantitative research e.g to give a quantitative answer to a
question, need to generalize findings to a population, or are looking to test a theory
mathematically
• In other cases, they will employ qualitative methods and in many cases, a mixed-methods
approach combining quantitative and qualitative methods will be the most appropriate.
• One of the main contentions of this school of philosophy is that the meaning and the truth of
any idea are a function of its practical outcome(s).
• Pragmatists strongly oppose the absolutism they see as a key part of most other philosophical
beliefs.
• They feel that too often a chosen philosophy is put in opposition to other philosophies (think of
the positivist/subjectivist debate), which are totally rejected.
• As for the subjectivists, there is no definite truth in pragmatic philosophy. Truth is constantly
changing and being updated through the process of human problem solving. The key question
for pragmatists is not ‘is it true?’, or ‘is it right?’, but ‘does it work?’
 When do we use quantitative methods?

• The first type of research question is that demanding a quantitative answer.

Examples are: ‘How many students choose to study education?’ or ‘How
many maths teachers do we need?
• Numerical change can likewise accurately be studied only by using
quantitative methods. Are the numbers of students in our university rising or
falling? Is sale going up or down?
• We often want to explain phenomena. What factors predict the recruitment
of maths teachers? What factors are related to changes in student
achievement over time?
• The testing of hypotheses. We might want to explain something – for
example, whether there is a relationship between pupil’s achievement and
their self-esteem and social background.
– Problems one and two above are called ‘descriptive’. We are merely trying to
describe a situation.
– Three and four are ‘inferential’. We are trying to explain something rather than just
describe it.
 When we don’t use quantitative methods

• When we want to explore a problem in depth.

• To develop hypotheses and theories
• If the issues to be studied are particularly
complex, an in-depth qualitative study (a case
study, for example) is more likely to pick up on
this than a quantitative study.
• To look at the meaning/context of particular
events or circumstances.
 Quantitative Methods

General purpose
• Collect and analyze data to explain, predict, or
control phenomena of interest
– Describe current conditions
– Investigate relationships
– Study causes and effects
Assumptions of the researcher
• We live in a stable, uniform, and coherent world
• We can measure, understand, and generalize
about our world
Obj. 3.6 & 5.1
 Quantitative Methods
Characteristics
• Numerical data
• Use of formally stated hypotheses and procedures
• Use of controls to minimize the effects of factors that could interfere with
the outcome of the research
• Large numbers of participating subjects
• An objective, detached researcher
• Use of pencil and paper tests, questionnaires, etc.
Basic designs
• Historical
• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Causal-comparative
• Experimental
• Single subject Obj. 3.6 & 5.1
 Selection and definition of a Problem
(Research Topic)
• Selection and statement of Problem
• Review of related literature
• Formulation and statement of Hypothesis
Selection and Statement of Problem
• Selection of Problem
• Statement of Problem
 Selection of Research Problem
• Identify a general problem area
– Expertise of Researcher
– Interest of Researcher
• Narrow Down the General Problem Area
– Theory
– Literature
Characteristics of a Good Problem
• Researchable
• Significant
• Suitable
– Skill
– Resources
 Sources of Research Topic
Some major sources of choosing a research
topic include:
• Existing support literature.
• Literature from other disciplines.
• Social concerns.
• Popular issues.
• Your own history and personal characteristics.
• Your tutors.
 Originality of the Research Problem
To ensure the originality of the research, a
research problem may be considered :
• Geographically
• Socially
• Temporal
• Contextually
• Methodologically (Veal 2006)
 Statement of Problem
• Defines relevant variables
• Relationship among variables
 Research Goal & Objectives
Goal
• It describes the aim of the work in broad terms
Objective
• These are more specific and relate directly to research question. They may
be divided into two types:
– Primary objectives  (bound to be achieved)
– Secondary objectives  (by the way)
• The goal (aim) and objectives must be stated at the very beginning of the
study, since they will guide the investigator during the process of
formulating research questions and hypothesis.
• They will also help in the prioritization process.
• They will enable the reader or consumer of the work to judge whether the
investigator had achieved these objectives or not.
 Considerations for Research Objectives
• Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development
of your research methodology and will help to orient the collection,
analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.
The research objectives should be:
– Closely related to the research question
– Covering all aspects of the problem
– Very specific
– Ordered in a logical sequence
– Stated in action verbs that could be evaluated e.g. to describe, to
identify, to measure, to compare, etc.
– Achievable, taking into consideration the available resources and
time
– Mutually exclusive, with no repetitions or overlaps
 SMART Objectives
• S Specific
• M Measurable
• A Achievable
• R Relevant
• T Time-bound
Formulation and Statement of Hypothesis
 Hypothesis
• Tentative statement concerning the
relationship between the variables concerned
is called Hypothesis
• It is the most specific statement of a problem
• It determines the outcome of the research
implied through literature review
• Whole research process revolves around
hypothesis
 Characteristics of Good Hypothesis
• It should be testable within some reasonable period of time
• It should be based on a sound rationale
• It should follow from previous research
• It should lead to future research
• It should be consistent with previous researches
• It should provide a reasonable explanation of relationship
between variables
• It should clearly and concisely state the expected relationship
between variable
• It should define the variable in operational and measureable
term
 Types of Hypothesis
Hypothesis are classified as:-
• Research Hypothesis
• Statistical Hypothesis
 Research Hypothesis
• Stated in declarative form
• Describes the expected relationship or difference
between variables
• In general, it is denoted by H1
• May be non-directional or directional
• Non-directional hypothesis simply describes
relationship
• Directional hypothesis indicates the nature of
relationship or difference
 Null Hypothesis
• Stated in null form
• Defies any sort of expected relationship or
difference between variables
• In general, it is denoted by H0
• Used because they suit statistical techniques to
determine whether expected relationship is just a
probability or a true one
• They rarely express the researchers expectation
regarding result of study
 Null Hypothesis vs. Alternative
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis

• Statement about the • Statement about the value

value of a population of a population parameter
parameter that must be true if the
• Represented by H0 null hypothesis is false
• Always stated as an • Represented by H1
Equality • Stated in on of three forms
• >
• <
• 
 Type I and Type II Errors
Type I Error
• Also known as a “false positive”
• It is the error of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually
true.
• It occurs when we are observing a difference when in truth
there is none (or more specifically - no statistically significant
difference).
Type II Error
• Also known as a "false negative":
• It is the error of accepting a null hypothesis when it is actually
false.
• It occurs when we are failing to observe a difference when in
truth there is one.
 Alpha vs. Beta
· a is the probability of Type I error
· b is the probability of Type II error
· The experimenters (you and I) have the
freedom to set the -level for a particular
hypothesis test. That level is called the level
of significance for the test. Changing a can
(and often does) affect the results of the test
—whether you reject or fail to reject H0.
 Alpha vs. Beta, Part II
• It would be wonderful if we could force both
 and  to equal zero. Unfortunately, these
quantities have an inverse relationship. As
 increases,  decreases and vice versa.
• The only way to decrease both  and  is to
increase the sample size. To make both
quantities equal zero, the sample size would
have to be infinite—you would have to
sample the entire population.
 Type I and Type II Errors
True State of Nature
The null The null
hypothesis is hypothesis is
true false

Type I error
We decide to (rejecting a true Correct
reject the null hypothesis) decision
null hypothesis
Decision

Type II error
We fail to Correct (rejecting a false
reject the decision null hypothesis)
null hypothesis

 Forming Conclusions
• Every hypothesis test ends with the
experimenters (you and I) either
• Rejecting the Null Hypothesis, or
• Failing to Reject the Null Hypothesis
• As strange as it may seem, you never
accept the Null Hypothesis. The best you
can ever say about the Null Hypothesis is
that you don’t have enough evidence,
based on a sample, to reject it!
 Seven Steps to Hypothesis
Testing Happiness
(Traditional or Classical Method)
 The Seven Steps…
1) Describe in words the population
characteristic about which hypotheses are
to be tested

2) State the null hypothesis, Ho

3) State the alternative hypothesis, H1 or Ha

4) Display the test statistic to be used

 The Seven Steps…
5) Identify the rejection region
• Is it an upper, lower, or two-tailed
test?
• Determine the critical value
associated with , the level of
significance of the test
6) Compute all the quantities in the test
statistic, and compute the test statistic
itself
 The Seven Steps…
7) State the conclusion. That is, decide
whether to reject the null hypothesis, Ho,
or fail to reject the null hypothesis. The
conclusion depends on the level of
significance of the test. Also, remember
to state your result in the context of the
specific problem.
 Selection of a Sample
Population
• A population is the group of interest to which the
researcher would like the results to be generalized
• A defined population has at least one characteristic
that differentiates it from other groups/population
Types of Population
• Target population (Actual population)
• Accessible/available population (realistically
selected population)
 Types of Population
Target Population
• Target population is the entire set of individuals who have
the characteristics required by the researcher (Actual
population)
Accessible/available population
• A subset of target population consisting of those
individuals who are accessible to be selected as
participants in the study (realistically selected population)
Sample
• A subset of accessible population consisting of those
individuals who are selected as participants in the study
 Selection of a Sample
Sampling
• Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals
(sample) for a study in such a way that the individuals represent
the larger group (population) from which they are selected
• Purpose of the sampling is to gain information about a
population
Steps in sampling
• Identification of population
• Determination of sample size
• Selection of sample
• Degree of representativeness is the degree of generalizability
 Selection of a Sample
• Sampling methods can be split into two
distinct groups:
– Probability samples
– Non-probability samples
Probability Samples
• Probability samples offer each respondent an
equal probability or chance at being included in
the sample.
Non Probability Samples
• A non probability sample relies on the
researcher selecting the respondents
 Selection of a Sample
Types of Probability Samples
• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Multistage Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
Random sampling
• No sampling technique guarantees the selection of true
representativeness of the sample
• The best single way to get a high probability of
representativeness is random sampling
• Process of selecting a sample in such a way that all
individuals in the defined population have an equal and
independent chance of being selected for the sample
• In other words, every individual has same probability of
being selected
• Selection of one individual does not affect the selection
of any other individual in no way
 Simple Random Sampling
Steps in random sampling
• Defining the population
• Identification of each member of population
• Selection of individuals for the sample on a
completely chance base
 Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling
• Process of selecting a sample in such a way that identified
subgroups in the population are represented in the sample
in the same proportion as they exist in the population
• Equal sized samples from each of sub group/strata may
also be selected if group comparison is required
Steps in stratified sampling
• Defining the population
• Identification of subgroups of population
• Selection of individuals for the sample from each sub
group on a completely chance base
 Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling
• A cluster is an intact group of similar characteristics in
defined population
• Sampling technique in which any specific group/cluster
from the population is randomly selected
Steps in cluster sampling
• Defining the population
• Identification of individual subgroups/clusters of population
• Estimate average number of individuals per cluster
• Selection of clusters for the sample from the population on
a completely chance base
 Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling
• Sampling technique in which individuals are
selected from a list of population by selecting
every Kth name
Total number of individuals in the population
• K=
Number individuals required for sample
• Systematic sampling can be considered random
sampling if population is randomly ordered
 Multistage Sampling
• Multistage sampling used frequently when a
complete list of all members of the population not
exists and is inappropriate.
• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or
more levels of units are embedded in each other.
• This technique is essentially the process of taking
random samples of previous random samples.
• All ultimate units selected at last step are surveyed.