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The Golden Ratio, Fibonacci Numbers, and Other Recurrences
The Golden Ratio, Fibonacci Numbers, and Other Recurrences
Inductive Rule
For n>1, Fib(n) = Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
Fib(n) 0 1 1 2 3 5 8
3
Sneezwort (Achilleaptarmica)
= 1.6180339887498948482045…
AC AB
AB BC
A B C
AC
2
BC
AC AB BC
2
1
BC BC BC
2 1 0
Expanding Recursively
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Continued Fraction Representation
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1....
Continued Fraction Representation
1 5 1
1
2 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 ....
Remember?
Fn 1 5
Hence: limn
Fn1 2
Continued Fraction Representation
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1....
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,….
2/1 = 2
3/2 = 1.5
5/3 = 1.666…
8/5 = 1.6
13/8 = 1.625
21/13 = 1.6153846…
34/21 = 1.61904…
= 1.6180339887498948482045
Continued fraction representation of a
standard fraction
67 1
2
29 1
3
1
4
2
67 1 1 1
2 2 2
29 29 2 1
3 3
9 9 1
4
2
67 1 1 1
2 2 2
29 29 2 1
3 3
9 9 1
4
2
Euclid(67,29) 67 div 29 = 2
Euclid(29,9) 29 div 9 = 3
Euclid(9,2) 9 div 2 = 4
Euclid(2,1) 2 div 1 =2
Euclid(1,0)
Euclid’s GCD = Continued Fractions
A A 1
B B B
A mod B
Euclid(A,B) = Euclid(B, A mod B)
Stop when B=0
Example: f5 = 5
Sequences That Sum To n
Example: f5 = 5
4= 2+2
2+1+1
1+2+1
1+1+2
1+1+1+1
Sequences That Sum To n
Let fn+1 be the number of different
sequences of 1’s and 2’s that sum to n.
f1 f3
f2
Sequences That Sum To n
f1 = 1 f3 = 2
0 = the empty sum 2=1+1
f2 = 1 2
1=1
Sequences That Sum To n
fn+1 = fn + fn-1
Sequences That Sum To n
fn+1 = fn + fn-1
# of # of
sequences sequences
beginning beginning
with a 1 with a 2
Fibonacci Numbers Again
fn+1 = fn + fn-1
f1 = 1 f2 = 1
Visual Representation: Tiling
Some examples:
F2n = F1 + F3 + F5 + … + F2n-1
m n
m-1 n-1
(Fn)2 = Fn-1 Fn+1 + (-1)n
(Fn)2 = Fn-1 Fn+1 + (-1)n
n-1
n-1
n-1
(Fn)2 = Fn-1 Fn+1 + (-1)n
n even
n odd
More random facts
1 1 + X + X2
?
1–X 1–X 1
-(1 – X)
X
-(X – X2)
X2
-(X2 – X3)
X3 …
= 1 + X + X 2 + X3 + X 4 + X5 + X 6 + X 7 + …
Xn+1 - 1
1+X +X +X +…+X
1 2 3 n-1
+X =
n
X- 1
X- 1
Xn+1 - 1
X- 1
= -1
X- 1
= 1
1-X
1
1 + X1 + X2 + X3 + … + Xn + ….. =
1-X
(X-1) ( 1 + X1 + X2 + X 3 + … + Xn + … )
= X1 + X 2 + X 3 + … + Xn + Xn+1 + ….
- 1 - X1 - X2 - X 3 - … - Xn-1 – Xn - Xn+1 - …
= 1
1
1 + X1 + X2 + X3 + … + Xn + ….. =
1-X
1 + X + X2 + …
1–X 1
-(1 – X)
X
-(X – X2)
X2
-(X2 – X3)
X3 …
Something a bit more complicated
3X4 + 2X5
-(3X4 – 3X5 – 3X6)
5X5 + 3X6
-(5X5 – 5X6 – 5X7)
8X6 + 5X7
-(8X6 – 8X7 – 8X8)
Hence
X
1 – X – X2
= F0 1 + F1 X1 + F2 X2 +F3 X3 + F4 X4 +
F5 X5 + F6 X6 + …
Going the Other Way
F0 = 0, F1 = 1
(1 - X- X2)
( F0 1 + F1 X1 + F2 X2 + … + Fn-2 Xn-2 + Fn-1 Xn-1 + Fn Xn + …
Going the Other Way
(1 - X- X2)
( F0 1 + F1 X1 + F2 X2 + … + Fn-2 Xn-2 + Fn-1 Xn-1 + Fn Xn + …
= F0 1 + ( F1 – F0 ) X1
F0 = 0, F1 = 1
=X
Thus
F0 1 + F1 X1 + F2 X2 + … + Fn-1 Xn-1 + Fn Xn + …
X
=
1 – X – X2
So much for
trying to take a
break from
the Fibonacci
numbers…
What is the Power Series
Expansion of x/(1-x-x2) ?
X / (1-X-X2) =
where =
= n=0..∞ ? Xn
1
=
(1 – aX)(1-bX)
n+1 – (--1)n+1
= n=0.. ∞ Xn
√5
1 x x 2
i 0
x
1 1
i
x
i i
1 x x 5
2
i 0
Leonhard Euler (1765)
J. P. M. Binet (1843)
A de Moivre (1730)
5
i
i 0
F 1I
GJ
n
F
G 1I
J
n
H K HK
n
n
Less than
Fn .277
5 5 5
Fn closest integer to
n
L
O
MP
n
5 N5 Q
F1I
GJ
n
F1 I
G J
n
H K H K
n
Fn n
Fn1
n 1 F1I
GJ
n 1
n 1 F1I
GJ
n 1
n1
F1I
GJ
n 1
H K H K H K
Fn
lim n
Fn1
What is the coefficient of
Xk in the expansion of:
( 1 + X + X2 + X3 + X4 + . . . . )n ?
( 1 + X + X2 + X3 + X4 + . . . . )n ?
n k 1
n - 1
( 1 + X + X 2 + X3 + X4 + . . . . ) n =
1
n k 1 k
n X
1 X k 0 n -1
What is the coefficient of Xk in the
expansion of:
a0 + a1 + a2 + .. + ak
(a0 + a1X + a2X2 + a3X3 + …) / (1 – X)
= i k
k
k 0 i 0
ai
X
Some simple power series
Al-Karaji’s Identities
Zero_Ave = 1/(1-X);
First_Ave = 1/(1-X)2;
Second_Ave = 1/(1-X)3;
Output =
1/(1-X)2 + 2X/(1-X)3
= (1-X)/(1-X)3 + 2X/(1-X)3
= (1+X)/(1-X)3
(1+X)/(1-X)3
outputs <1, 4, 9, ..>
X(1+X)/(1-X)3
outputs <0, 1, 4, 9, ..>
Sk X k
1
n k 1 k
n X
1 X k 0 n -1
THUS:
1
k 3 k
4
X
1 X k 0 3
Coefficient of Xk in PV = (X2+X)(1-X)-4 is
the sum of the first k squares:
1
k 3 k
4
X
1 X k 0 3
Polynomials give us closed form
expressions
REFERENCES
Polynomials
The infinite geometric series
Division of polynomials
Representation of Fibonacci numbers
as coefficients of polynomials.