EME3046 Mechanics of Materials

Chapter 3
Three Dimensional Linear Theory of Elasticity

Learning Outcome:
LO1: Understand the theories of stress and strain that
are essential for the analysis of a structural or
mechanical system subjected to loads. (cognitive –
comprehending, level 2).

Programme Outcomes:
PO1: Ability to acquire and apply fundamental principles
of science and engineering.
PO3: Acquisition of technical competence in specialized
areas of engineering discipline
 Contents
Elasticity and internal-energy density.
Elasticity and complementary internal-energy density.
A brief introduction to anisotropic elasticity.
Linear isotropic elasticity:
 Strain Energy for linear elastic isotropic materials.
 Hooke’s law for linear elastic isotropic materials—additional
elastic constants.
Other Common Constitutive Models
In this chapter, we employ the first law of
thermodynamics to derive linear stress-strain relations.
In addition, certain concepts, such as complementary
strain energy, that have application to nonlinear
problems are introduced. These relations and concept
are utilized in many applications.
Introduction
Previously:
Theories for stress and strain are presented separately.
Stress → based on concept of force and associated of force per unit
area.
Strain → geometrical concepts of infinitesimal line extensions.
Hooke’s Law → relates stress and strain for isotropic linear elastic
material.

However:
To relate the stress at a point in a material to the corresponding
strain at that point, knowledge of material properties is required.
These properties enter into the stress-strain-temperature
relations as material coefficients. The theoretical basis for
these relations is the first law of thermodynamics, but the
material properties themselves must be determined
experimentally.
Isolated system
No energy can pass through the boundaries of the system.

Closed system
Energy can pass through the boundaries (as heat and /or work).
No mass may flow in/out of the system boundaries.

Adiabatic system
No heat can pass through the boundaries.

Open system
Energy can pass through the boundaries (as heat and /or work).
Mass may flow in/out of the system boundaries.
 Work that is performed on a mechanical system
by external forces
+
The heat that flows into the system from the outside

=
The increase of internal energy
+
The increase of kinetic energy.
 δW + δH = δU + δK

δ W = Work performed on the system by external forces.

δ H = Heat that flows into the system from the outside.
δ U = Increase in internal energy.
δ K = Increase in kinetic energy.
How to apply the first law of Thermodynamics?
•We consider a loaded member in equilibrium.
•The deflections are assumed to be known

•The displacement components u , v, w

•Each point to undergo infinitesimal increments(variations) in the
displacement components u , v, w indicated by u , v, w

The stress components at every point of the member are considered

to be unchanged under variations of the displacements.
Recall the equations from small displacement theory:

 xy  2 xy  xz  2 xz  yz  2 yz
The variations of the strain components resulting from variations u , v, w
are:

(1)
 To introduce force quantities
•Consider an arbitrary volume V of the deformed member enclosed
by a closed surface S.
•Body forces ( represented by distributions of body forces per unit
volume Bx, By,and Bz in volume V)

•Assumptions:

•Staticequilibrium : δK = 0
• Adiabatic conditions: δH = 0

So from the first law of Thermodynamics

δW + δH = δU + δK
, for V, we have
W  U (2)
The work done on the system can be divided into 2
parts:

W  WS  WB (3)

Where WS The work of the surface forces.

WB The work of the body forces.

Work done by surface forces
where (l, m, n) are the direction cosines of unit vector N given by:
Work done by surface forces
Work done by surface forces

(4)
 Work done by body forces

(5)

Recall equation (3):

Substitute (4) and (5) into (3) gives:

(6)
Expanding equation (6) gives:

(7)

Recalling the stress equilibrium equations:

(8)

Substitute (8) into (7) gives:

 (9)

Substitute (1) into (9) gives:

(10)
 Internal Energy

(Equation (2))

Substituting (10) into the above relations gives:

(11)
 (12)

Comparing (11) and (12) gives:

(13)
 Anisotropic and Isotropic Materials
Anisotropic Materials: Materials which Its
properties vary systematically, dependent on
direction. Some materials, such as wood and
fibre-reinforced composites are very
anisotropic. For example, wood's strength and
hardness will be different for the same sample
if measured in differing orientation.

Orthotropic Materials: Posses 3 orthogonal Typical Wood Structure (Fiber Reinforced Composite)
planes of material symmetry and 3
corresponding orthogonal axes called
orthogonal axes. Properties of the material
vary along these axes. These axes may vary
from point to point, for certain materials.
Orthotropic materials are anisotropic. (Hexagonal Crystal)

Nonhomogeneity - Spatial differences in material

Isotropic Materials: Materials which have properties. Soil materials in the earth vary with depth, and
same properties at any point in all direction, new functionally graded materials (FGM’s) are now being
such as Metals and alloys. developed with deliberate spatial variation in elastic
properties to produce desirable behaviors.
A homogeneous Material: materials that
consist of only one phase has same the
material properties at all points in the body.
Some examples of homogeneous materials are: Gradation Direction
water, antifreeze, gold, copper, silver, and salt.
(materials that consist of only one phase)
 Anisotropic and Isotropic Materials

In the early part of the 20th century most engineering

materials were isotropic. In the later part of the 20th century,
the aerospace industry created the demand for new, high-
strength, high stiffness and light-weight fiber-reinforced
composite materials. Because these materials are also highly
anisotropic, designers could optimize their designs, i.e.
orient the direction of high stiffness and strength in the load
direction
 Anisotropic material
3D case
For an anisotropic material, the Hookes law can be generalized as :

(14)

 where the 36 coefficients, C11 , …, C66 , are called elastic coefficients.

Materials that exhibit such stress-strain relations involving a number of independent

elastic coefficients are said to be anisotropic.
Anisotropic material

Recalling
(13):

Substitute (13) into (14)

gives:

(15)
 Anisotropic material

(15)

From the first 2 equations of

(15):
Anisotropic material

In the same manner, the appropriate differentiation of (15)

yields:

(16)
Anisotropic material
 Anisotropic material

(17)
Isotropic material

(18)
Isotropic material

(19)
 Isotropic material
(19)

(20)
 Isotropic
material

(20)

(21)
 Isotropic material

(20)

(22)
Isotropic material
STRESS – STRAIN RELATION Isotropic material

(23)
STRESS – STRAIN RELATION Isotropic material

(23)

(24)
STRAIN - STRESS RELATION Isotropic material

(24)

(25)
Isotropic material
Isotropic material
Isotropic material

(24)

(26)
Isotropic material
Isotropic material

(25)
Example
 ORTHOTROPIC
STRESS – STRAIN RELATION MATERIAL

 For orthotropic materials, the stress-strain

relations are given in terms of the coefficients Cij ;

 xx  C11 xx  C12 yy  C13 zz

 yy  C12 xx  C 22 yy  C 23 zz
 zz  C13 xx  C 23 yy  C33 zz
 xy  C 44 xy (27)
 xz  C55 xz
 yz  C66 yz
 The equation above are applicable only when the
orthotropic axes are used as the coordinate axes.
 ORTHOTROPIC
STRAIN - STRESS RELATION MATERIAL

 For orthotropic materials, the strain-stress

relations are;
1 v yx v
 xx   xx   yy  zx  zz
Ex Ey Ez
v xy 1 v zx
 yy    xx   yy   zz
Ex Ey Ez
v xz v yz 1
 zz   xx   yy   zz
Ex Ey Ez
1
 xy   xy
G xy
(28)
1
 xz   xz
G xz
1
 yz   yz
G yz
 Linear isotropic elasticity

•Is the mathematical study of how solid objects deform and become
internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions.

•The fundamental "linearizing" assumptions of linear elasticity are:

infinitesimal strains or "small" deformations (or strains) and linear
relationships between the components of stress and strain.

•Inaddition linear elasticity is valid only for stress states that do not produce
yielding.

•These assumptions are reasonable for many engineering materials and

engineering design scenarios.

•Linear elasticity is therefore used extensively in structural analysis and

engineering design, often with the aid of finite element analysis.
Strain-stress relations for linear elastic isotropic materials

The Hook's law, states that within the elastic limits the stress
is proportional to the strain since for most materials it is
impossible to describe the entire stress – strain curve with
simple mathematical expression, in any given problem the
behavior of the materials is represented by an idealized stress
– strain curve, which emphasizes those aspects of the
behaviors which are most important is that particular
problem.
(i) Linear elastic material:

 A linear elastic material is one in which the strain is

proportional to stress as shown below:
Other Common Constitutive Models.

(ii) Rigid Materials:

It is the one which donot experience any strain regardless of the
applied stress.
 (iii) Perfectly plastic(non-strain hardening):

A perfectly plastic i.e non-strain hardening material is shown below:

 
(iv) Rigid Plastic material(strain hardening):
A rigid plastic material i.e strain hardening is depicted in the figure below:

(v) Elastic Perfectly Plastic material:

The elastic perfectly plastic material is having the characteristics as shown below:
 
(vi) Elastic – Plastic material:

The elastic plastic material exhibits a stress Vs strain diagram as depicted in the
figure below:
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION 1
 What is an anisotropic material ? Give an
example.
SUPPLEMENTARY SOLUTION 1
 Materials which its properties vary
systematically, dependent on direction.
Some materials, such as wood and fiber-
reinforced composites are anisotropic. For
example, wood strength and hardness will be
different for the sample if measured in
different orientation.
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTION 2
 A birch wood log has the following elastic constants relative to orthotropic
axes (x , y , z):
E x  15290MPa E y  15290MPa E z  765MPa
G xy  1130MPa G xz  1130MPa G yz  260MPa
v xy  0.426 v xz  0.426 v yz  0.697
where the x-axis is longitudinal to the grain, the y-axis is radial in the tree,
and the z axis is tangent to the growth rings of the tree. The unit of stress is
Mpa. At a point in a birch log, the components of stress are σxx = 7 MPa,
σyy = 2.1 Mpa, σzz = - 2.8 Mpa, σxy = 1.4MPa and σxz = σyz = 0.

a.) Determine the orientation of the principal axes of

stress.
b.) Determine the strain components.
c.) Determine the orientation of the principal axes of
strain.
SUPPLEMENTARY SOLUTION 2