Chapter 1: How the elements found in the universe were formed

The Creation of the

Elements and the
Relationship to
Cosmic Events in the
Universe
 The Big Bang
The Big Bang Theory is the accepted
scientific theory about the origin of the
universe based upon multiple lines of
evidence.
The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally
energetic explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
All matter and energy were compressed
at a single point (singularity) at the time of
the explosion
We do not know what was before…..?
The age of the universe is calculated at
13.7 billion years (based on multiple
methods of age dating based on
empirical data).
 The Big Bang vs. the
Steady State Model
 The Big Bang (1931) was first proposed by an Belgian
cosmologist and priest named George LeMaitre based on
theoretical calculations and astronomical measurements of
distant galaxies (by Edwin Hubble) that demonstrated that the
universe is expanding.
 The competing theory was the Steady State Model (1948) which
said that on the large scale the universe has always looked the
same and that there was no beginning and is no end. To account
for the observed expansion of the universe, it required that matter
to be continuously created to fill gaps that would be created
by an expanding universe.
Scientific Evidence for the
Big Bang Theory
 The Red Shift of Distant Galaxies
(Hubble, 1927)
 The Cosmic Elemental Abundances of
Hydrogen and Helium and Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
(Alpher and Gamow, 1948)
 The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
Radiation
(Penzias and Wilson, 1964)
 Red Shift is Evident in
Emission Spectra of Light
from Stars and Galaxies
 Hubble’s Law and Red Shift
 Everything in the universe is moving away from
everything else (Raisin bread analogy).

 We are not at the center of the universe.

 Edwin Hubble discovered that distant galaxies are
moving away from us at rates faster than closer
galaxies are moving away from us.
 Cosmic Elemental
Abuandances
 Hydrogen (74%) and Helium (24%) are the
most abundant elements in the universe.
 Stellar nucleosynthesis alone cannot account
for the large amount of Helium. (can only
account for about 2%)
 Big Bang nucleosynthesis calculations
accurately predict the present cosmic
abundances of hydrogen and helium.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
 All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was
produced during the Big Bang Event, starting ~100
seconds after the explosion. A small amount of Lithium
was also produced.

 Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes

because the universe had expanded sufficiently by then
such that the temperatures and pressures were too low to
support additional fusion reactions.
 Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
 There is a background signal of microwave radiation emitted
by the universe. It comes from the light energy given off
during the “Big Bang” explosion.
 It can be detected no matter which direction you point an
antennae in the sky, at any time, day or night.
 It was discovered by accident by two astronomers (Penzias
and Wilson) working at Bell Labs in New Jersey in 1964.

Penzias and Wilson won

the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1978 for their discovery.
 Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
 Due to the cosmic background microwave radiation, the
remnant radiation left over from the Big Bang, the universe
has an ambient temperature of 3K.
 The CMB radiation is remarkably uniform in its distribution.
It has been mapped by the COBE (Cosmic Background
Explorer) satellite.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei into heavier
nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores.
 Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and densities
of matter are needed to initiate fusion (thermonuclear) reactions.
 The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium
and releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This
is why stars shine!
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Larger stars can fuse heavier elements.
Supernova Nucleosynthesis
 Elements heavier than Iron are made primarly
when giant stars explode in supernova events .
 A summary…
(you are made of stardust)
The Life Cycles of Stars
 Nebulae
 Nebulae are regions
of gas and dust in
interstellar space
within galaxies.
 Nebulae contain gas
and dust from
previously exploded
stars.
 Nebulae are the
birthplaces of new
stars. (recycling!)
 When stars form,
planets may form
too (a solar system)
Nebulae (continued)
The image,
roughly 3
light-years
across, was
taken May 29-
30, 1999, with
the Wide Field
Planetary
Camera 2. The
colors in the
image
represent
various gases.
Red
represents
sulfur; green,
hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen.
 Main Sequence Stars

The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram shows that there is some relationship

between the temperature and luminosity (brightness) of a star. The clustering
indicates something about how stars change over time. Young-middle age stars
always plot on the main sequence.
 Main Sequence Stars

Main sequence stars

fuse hydrogen to
helium.
Red Giants and White Dwarfs
NGC 6369 – Planetary
Nebula with White Dwarf

V838 Monocerotis – Red Giant

 Supernovae

The Crab Nebula – Supernova Remnant The Veil Nebula – 5000 to

10000 years old; in our
Observed 1000 years ago. galaxy
Neutron Stars and Black Holes
How do nuclear reactions
happen in stars to pave
way for the formation of
elements?
Nuclear Reactions
 Are processes in which a nucleus
either combines with another
nucleus( nuclear fission) or splits
into smaller nuclei (nuclear fusion).
 Are processes that involve the
emission of energetic particles of an
atom, known as RADIOACTIVITY.
Radioactive particles can
be:
 Elements
 Electrons
 Protons
 and neutrons
Common Types of Nuclear
Reactions:
 Alpha decay
 Beta decay
 Gamma radiation
 Positron emission
 Electron capture
 Bombardment of alpha particle
Types of Radiation
 Alpha decay
 When an unstable atomic nucleus emits two
protons and two neutrons
the radioactive process is known as Alpha
Decay.
 For example: When
the 238U92undergoes alpha decay then a new
element with mass number 238 – 4 = 234 and
charge number 92 – 2 = 90 is formed. U92 ---
> 234Th90 + 4He2.This corresponds to Thorium.
Beta decay
 Due to the change in the nucleus a beta
particle is emitted. A beta particle is
typically a high speed electron
in β- decay or positron (an electron with
a positive charge) in β+ decay.
  Examples: ... In this example, a neutron
of carbon is converted into a proton and
the emitted beta particle is an electron.
Gamma radiation

 For example, in an electron–positron
annihilation, the usual products are
two gamma ray photons. ... Sincegamma
rays are at the top of the electromagnetic
spectrum in terms of energy, all extremely
high-energy photons are gamma rays;
for example, a photon having the Planck
energy would be a gamma ray.
 Gamma rays are not particles but a high energy form of
electromagnetic radiation (like x-rays except more powerful).
Gamma rays are energy that has no mass or charge.
Gamma rays have tremendous penetration power and
require several inches of dense material (like lead) to shield
them. Gamma rays may pass all the way through a human
body without striking anything. They are considered to have
the least ionizing power and the greatest penetration power.

Penetrating Ability
Let us recall…
 Isotopes
 Atoms of the same element (same Z)
but different mass number (A).
 Boron-10 (10B) has 5 p and 5 n: 105B
 Boron-11 (11B) has 5 p and 6 n: 115B
B
11

B
10
Radioactivity
 One of the pieces of evidence for
the fact that atoms are made of
smaller particles came from the
work of Marie Curie (1876-1934).
 She discovered radioactivity,
the spontaneous disintegration of
some elements into smaller pieces.
Types of Radiation
Nuclear Reactions
 Alpha emission

Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4 and atomic number (Z)
goes down by 2.

Nucleons are rearranged but conserved

Both A and Z must be balanced in nuclear reactions.

Nuclear Reactions
 Beta emission

Note that mass number (A) is unchanged and atomic number (Z) goes
up by 1.

How does this happen?

Note that both A and Z are balanced.

 Nuclear Reactions
 Gamma rays – very high energy waves!

-rays are sometimes produced after  or  emissions.

Radioactive decay generates a new nucleus, but possibly in an

unstable configuration of p+, n.

E Nuclear energy levels

A drop in energy level emits a -ray.

Origin of the Elements
• The Big Bang Theory
• In the first moments there were
only 2 elements — hydrogen and
helium
Element Abundance
Stability of Nuclei

 H is most abundant element in the

universe.
 88.6% of all atoms
 He is 11.3% of all atoms
 H + He = 99.9% of all atom & 99% of mass of
the universe.
 This tells us about the origin of the
elements, and so does the existence of
isotopes.
Half-Life

 HALF-LIFE is the time it takes for 1/2 a

sample is disappeared.
 The rate of a nuclear transformation depends
only on the “reactant” concentration.
 Concept of HALF-LIFE is especially useful
for 1st order reactions.
Half-Life

Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives? After 5 half-

lives?
Nuclear Fission

http://chemincontext.eppg.com/chapter7/FiguresAlive.html

April 26th, 1986 – Chernobyl Disaster

Nuclear
Fission & Lise
Meitner

109Mt
 Nuclear Fission & POWER
 Currently about 103
nuclear power plants
in the U.S. and about
435 worldwide.
 17% of the world’s
energy comes from
nuclear.
Image from: http://www.animatedsoftware.com/hotwords/nuclear_reactor/nuclear_reactor.htm
Radon – a deadly gas?
238
92 U 226
88 Ra 222
86 Rn +
4
2

t1/2 = 3hr 222

86 Rn 
4
2
+
218
84 Po
More 
t1/2 = 3d 218
84 Po
4
2  +
214
82 Pb 206
82 Pb

Rn atoms settle in lungs and eject an  particle.

 Units for Measuring Radiation
Curie: 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 distintegrations/s
SI unit is the becquerel: 1 Bq = 1 dps
Rad: measures amount of energy absorbed
1 rad = 0.01 J absorbed/kg tissue
Rem: based on rad and type of radiation.
Quantifies biological tissue damage
Usually use “millirem”
Effects of Radiation
Nuclear Medicine: Imaging
 Nuclear Medicine: Imaging

Technetium-99m is used in more than 85%

of the diagnostic scans done in hospitals
each year. Synthesized on-site from Mo-99.
99
Mo --->
42
99m
Tc +
43
0
-1 
99m
Tc decays to 9943Tc giving off  ray.
43

Tc-99m contributes in sites of high activity.

Nuclear Medicine: Imaging
Imaging of a
heart using
Tc-99m
before and
after
exercise.
 Food Irradiation
•Food can be irradiated with  rays
from 60Co or 137Cs.
•Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo.
without refrigeration.
•USDA has approved irradiation of
meats and eggs.
Let’s check:

Identify the following

if it is a nuclear
fusion or nuclear
fission:
What (specific)nuclear
reaction is involved in the
equation?