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Optsub Att General 17 Aeroplane Project Aero
Optsub Att General 17 Aeroplane Project Aero
towards the back, pushes air downwards as the wing is propelled forwards by
the engine. In reaction, the wing is pushed upwards, generating lift, as
predicted in the third law of motion formulated by Isaac Newton: that for
every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The magnitude of the lift
that is generated depends upon the shape of the aerofoil in cross-section, the
area and shape of the lifting surface, its inclination relative to the airflow, and
the airflow speed.
Lift
The lift developed on a wing or similar surface is directly proportional to the
plan area exposed to the airflow but proportional to the square of the speed of
the airflow. It is also approximately proportional to the inclination, or angle of
attack, of the aerofoil relative to the airflow
for angles typically in the range of plus and minus 14°. At greater angles the
airflow characteristics change rapidly, the
flow “breaks away”, and lift falls drastically. In these circumstances the
aerofoil is said to have “stalled”.
During the course of a flight, a pilot frequently alters the speed and angle
of attack of the aircraft. These two factors are often balanced against
each other. For instance, if the pilot wishes to increase speed and yet
maintain level flight, the angle of attack must be decreased to offset the
extra lift that is provided by the increase in the speed of the aircraft.
In preparing to land, the pilot must ease the plane down and at the same
time reduce its speed as much as possible. To compensate for the
considerable loss of lift resulting from the decrease in speed, the pilot
provides additional lift by altering the wing area, effective curvature, and
angle of attack. This is done through the use of high-lift devices called flaps,
large wing extensions located at the rear or trailing edge. Most flaps are
normally retracted into the wing during cruising flight. If extra lift is
wanted, the pilot extends the flaps outward and downward. Sometimes
high-lift devices are provided at the front, or leading, edge of a wing.
Drag
Aeroplane designers conceive aircraft with the highest possible ratio of lift to drag,
which occurs when the drag resulting from the shape is equal to the induced drag
resulting from the lift. The lift-to-drag ratio is limited by factors such as speed and
acceptable weight of the airframe. A subsonic transport aircraft may have a lift-to-
drag ratio of about 20, while that of a high-performance sailplane may be twice this.
On the other hand, the extra drag that occurs when an aircraft flies at supersonic
speed reduces the achieved lift-to-drag ratio to less than 10.
Aeroplane, heavier-than-air craft that is usually propelled mechanically and
supported by the aerodynamic action of the airstream on fixed-wing surfaces.
Other types of aircraft that are heavier than air include the glider or sailplane,
which is similarly equipped with fixed-wing surfaces but is not self-propelled, and
rotary-wing aircraft, which are mechanically driven and supported by overhead
rotors, such as the Autogiro and Helicopters. Another type is the ornithopter,
which is lifted and propelled by flapping wings. Toy-sized ornithopters have been
developed, but large-scale experiments have been unsuccessful. For the history of
heavier-than-air craft, see Aviation
The term “aeroplane” generally denotes craft operated from land bases, but it
applies also to several other categories of aircraft, including the carrier-based
plane, the seaplane, and the amphibian. The principal variation in
configuration can be found in the landing apparatus.
The carrier-based plane is a type of land plane designed for use on an
aircraft carrier, and is fitted with a tail hook that engages a cable stretched
across the deck to arrest the plane after landing. The seaplane employs floats
instead of the wheel gear of the land plane. In the variety of seaplane known
as the flying boat, the fuselage is constructed as a hull, similar to that of a
seagoing vessel, and serves to keep the plane buoyant. The amphibian is
equipped with both wheel gear and hull or floats to permit operation with
equal effectiveness on land and water.
Before World War II, flying boats were used for military transports and
for intercontinental commercial service. These planes were limited to
low flying speeds and to low landing speeds in water. With the advent of
planes that fly and land much faster, to gain efficiency, large planes have
been limited to land-based operation. The amphibian, even slower
because of its double undercarriage, is less commonly employed than the
land plane. For light sports planes,
amphibious floats are available. Generally resembling conventional floats, they
have a recessed wheel located at the centre. The wheel does not extend far
enough to add much drag to the float in the water, but it protrudes far enough
to enable wheeled landings to be made on hard-surfaced runways or short-cut
grass.
The STOL craft is an aeroplane that takes off and lands very steeply,
thus requiring only a short runway. For a given payload, it is more
efficient in terms of fuel consumption and power requirements than a
VTOL craft. It is also capable of higher speeds and longer-range
flights than a helicopter. In September 1999 a solar-powered aircraft
completed its first test-flight in California. The aircraft has a wingspan
of 75 m (247 ft) and flies without a pilot. In the future it is thought the
plane could remain in continuous flight for up to six months at a time
and would be employed for scientific tests and telecommunications
projects. For lighter-than-air craft, see Airship; Balloon
The present-day conventional aeroplane may be divided into four
components: fuselage, wings, tail assembly, and landing gear, or
undercarriage.
A Fuselage
In the early days of aviation, the fuselage was merely an open framework to
support the other components of the plane; the bottom of the airframe served
as the landing gear. Subsequently, the need for greater strength and better
performance resulted in the development of enclosed, box-like “strut-and-
wire” fuselages that decreased drag, and also provided protection for pilot
and passenger, as well as space for the payload. This “truss” structure was
gradually superseded by the monocoque (literally, single shell) fuselage. The
loads imposed on such a structure are carried primarily by the skin, rather
than by an internal framework, as in the trussed structure. It is the most
common fuselage presently in use. The outer shell also confers the possibility
of pressurizing the internal volume for high-altitude flight.
Wings
The size and shape of wings vary widely, depending on specific aerodynamic
considerations. Wings of many supersonic planes have a high degree of
sweepback (arrowhead tapering from the nose of the plane) and are as thin as
possible, with a knife-like leading edge. Such a shape helps to reduce the
shock of compression when the plane approaches the speed of sound. The
structural importance of the wing is dramatically demonstrated by the
development of the so-called “flying wing”, a craft in which fuselage and tail
are almost entirely eliminated.
Tail Assembly
Landing Gear
A Mechanical Controls
Ailerons, usually placed far out on the wing, control rolling movement around
the longitudinal axis. Leftward movement of the stick or wheel raises the left
aileron and lowers the right, thereby banking the plane to the left. The
reverse tilt occurs when the stick or wheel is moved to the right.
Instruments
Flight Control Panel The cockpit of a Concorde jet shows the complexity of
flight controls. Electronic and computerized equipment in the cockpit
provides information regarding navigation, speed, altitude, landing, and
engine performance.Albert Visage/Explorer/Photo Researchers, Inc .
Information required in flight is provided by various types of equipment,
which may be divided into four general categories: power-plant
instruments, flight instruments, landing instruments, and navigation aids.
Power-plant instruments indicate whether the engines are functioning
properly and include the tachometer, which shows the revolutions per
minute of each engine, various pressure gauges, temperature indicators,
and the fuel gauges. The primary flight instruments provide indications of
speed (the air-speed indicator), direction (the magnetic compass and the
directional gyro), altitude (the altimeter), and attitude (the rate-of-climb
and turn-and-bank indicators and the artificial horizon). Several of the
flight instruments, including the automatic pilot, utilize the gyroscopic
principle.
During the period before World War I the design of both the aeroplane
and its engine showed considerable improvement. Pusher biplanes—two-
winged aeroplanes with the engine and propeller behind the wing—were
succeeded by tractor biplanes, with the propeller in front of the wing.
Only a few types of monoplanes were used.
Throughout World War II, aircraft became increasingly crucial factors
in military strategy and battles. The need to produce high-performance
military aeroplanes as rapidly as possible during the war served as the
impetus for many advances in aircraft design and production techniques.
Here, World War II military aircraft fly in formation.
Air power played a significant role in World War II. The vintage Fairey
Swordfish, shown here, contributed to Allied naval victories in 1940 and
1941. This torpedo bomber, although not as advanced as some of the other
bombers in use at the time, crippled an Italian fleet at Taranto and
inflicted severe damage on the German battleship Bismarck.Ian A.
Griffiths/Robert Harding Picture Library
Two basic means are used to provide the thrust for an aeroplane in flight:
propellers or jet propulsion. In a propeller-driven aeroplane either a piston-
driven internal-combustion engine or a turboprop engine is utilized to drive the
propeller, which thrusts the air backwards because it has aerofoil-shaped blade
sections cutting through the air in a screw-like fashion. In jet propulsion, the
forward thrust is provided by the discharge of high-speed gases through a rear-
facing nozzle. Rocket engines, working on a similar principle, are occasionally
used.
The piston engine used in most propeller-driven aircraft is one of two types,
the reciprocating engine and the rotary engine. In the reciprocating engine,
heat energy is utilized to move pistons operating within cylinders. Cylinder
arrangement is generally in-line, horizontal-opposed, or radial, and either
air-cooling or liquid-cooling systems are used. Nearly all aircraft
reciprocating engines are petrol operated. In general, the advantages of the
reciprocating engine are reliability and fuel economy. The rotary engine
replaces the pistons by a single rotating one and hence has fewer ports. It is
claimed to produce lower vibration. Some engines of this type are becoming
available for use in small aircraft.
Turboprop and turbofan engines extract most of the gas energy in the turbine,
the residual jet thrust being of secondary magnitude. Turboprop engines are
efficient for medium-sized planes at speeds up to about 480 to 640 km/h (300 to
400 mph). At higher subsonic speeds the turbofan is the preferred engine, as the
performance of a propeller drops to a low level of efficiency. Turbofan engines
use less fuel and are quieter than turbojets, but at higher, supersonic, speeds the
high exhaust velocity of the turbojet is necessary.
The ramjet engine is a jet engine in which the air compression needed for
combustion is obtained from the speed of forward motion alone. As in the
turbojet, its total power output is delivered as the jet thrust of its expelled gases.
Although the ramjet can be applied to piloted aircraft, its present rate of fuel
consumption is so prohibitively high that it is used only in guided-missile
applications.
The rocket engine carries its own oxidant as well as its fuel and, like the ramjet,
has its chief application in guided missiles. A solid-propellant rocket is used for
rocket-assisted take-off, supplementary initial power for heavily loaded
aircraft.
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