OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY

• Definition
• Physiology is the study of the function, mechanisms and integration of the sys
tems of the body.
• It explains the biophysical and chemical properties and processes that are resp
onsible for the origin, development and progression of life.
• Every living matter, varying from simple viruses and the complex human being
has its own unique physiological functional characteristics.
• Thus, physiology is divided into viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellula
r physiology, plant physiology, animal physiology etc.
• Human physiology is the most advanced of all physiological studies.
•Human physiology explains the specific characteristics and mechanism that mak
es the human body a living entity.
 Organization of the Human Body

 In cellular organisms such as the simple cell, all the viral processes of
life occur in a single cell; e.g. the exchange of gases.
 With the evolution of multicellular organisms like man, various cells
or groups of cells have taken over specific functions.
 For this reason the human body has been described as an incredible m
echanism in which trillions of cells each composed of trillions of mole
cules are assembled in the precise and intricate manner all integrated t
o perform function that are necessary for the survival of the human bo
dy.
 Organization of the Human Body cont.
 A cell is the basic structure and functional unit of life. These
cells on the other hand cooperate in groups called tissues.
Tissues can perform the same functions or they can perform
complementary functions. An integration of tissues of the sa
me type forms an organ or of different types form an organ sy
stem.
All organs work in consonant to keep the whole system funct
ioning to sustain life.
The human system can be described as a society of cells that
include specialized groups.
 THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

 All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called elem
ents, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iro
n.

 The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an atom.

 Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and neutron.

 Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, an
d sugars found in living things.

 Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.

Therefore, molecules combine to form cells, cells combine to form tissues, tissues combin
e to form organs, organs combine to form organ systems, and organ systems combine to fo
rm organisms.
Organization of the Human Body cont.
 Organization of the Human Body cont.
The following are the system or society of cells that keep the body functioning:

Gastro-Intestinal Tract (GIT) – digests and assimilates food and remove unwanted p

articles.

Respiratory system – carry out a mechanical as a channel functions. The mechanical

function involves the take up of O2 and the release of CO2. Whilst the chemical functi

on involve the metabolic process of oxidation of digested food particles.

The cardio-vascular system (CVS) – transports O2 and food particles to site of metab

olic and the end products of metabolism to cite of elimination.

The urinary system – removes nitrogenous waste and excess water.

 Organization of the Human Body cont.
The reproductive system – performs the function that ensures the continuit
y of life and retention of genetic characteristics from generation to generati
on.

The skeletal system – ensures mobility and performs and facilitates the me
chanical function of all parts of the body.

The nervous and endocrine systems – integrate and coordinate the function
of other systems. This system is more or less referred to as the seat of the h
uman system.
 Organization of the Human Body cont.
The cells that make up the human body is the internal environment of
the body.
 This environment is a fluid medium called the extra-cellular fluid (E
CF).
The ECF constitutes about a third of the total body water and the rema
ining two-third is the intra-cellular fluid (ICF).
The ECF can be sub-divided into plasma, interstitial fluid.
The ECF is in constant motion throughout the body and this motion is
facilitated by the circulatory system.
The ECF contains the ions and nutrient needed by cells for the mainte
nance of life.
 Organization of the Human Body cont.
The cells take up O2 and nutrients from the ECF and
discharge metabolic waste into it.
 Therefore all cells live in the ECF, and so the mainten
ance of the ECF is vital to the function of the cells.
The growth of cells and their ability to perform specia
lized functions depends on the maintenance of the requ
ire concentration of O2, glucose, amino acids and fatty
acids in the ECF.
 Characteristics and Functions of the ECF
1.Transports all requirements of the body. Its transport is facilitated by the
circulatory system through two stages: movement of blood and movement
of fluid between capillary walls and the cells. The ECF occurs in three ma
in body constituent – plasma, interstitial fluid and the lymph. Blood circul
ates the body at a rate of one couple circuit in one minute, when the body i
s a rest and up to six complete circuits when in extreme activities.
2.The ECF contains all nutrients and needs of the cell to sustain life. As bl
ood passes through the capillaries, continuous exchange of extracellular fl
uid occurs between plasma and the interstitial fluid that fills the spaces bet
ween the cells.
Characteristics and Functions of the ECF
cont.
2. The ECF contains all nutrients and needs of the cell to sustain life. As bl
ood passes through the capillaries, continuous exchange of extracellular flu
id occurs between plasma and the interstitial fluid that fills the spaces betw
een the cells.

The ECF in both plasma and interstitial fluid is constantly being mixed ther
eby maintaining a complete homogeneity all through the body.

3. The maintenance of a constant internet environment depends on the main

tenance of optimum conditions or normal range of constituents in the ECF.

The following table gives the normal and lethal ranges of the vari
ous key constituents of the ECF.
Constituent Unit Normal values Normal range Approx. non-lethal
limit

O2 Mm 40 35 – 45 10 – 100
Hg
CO2 Mm 40 35 – 45 5 – 80
Hg
Na+ M 142 138 – 146 115 – 175
mol/
l

K+ “ 4.2 3.8 – 5.0 1.5 – 9.0

Ca+ “ 1.2 1.0 – 1.4 0.5 – 2.0

Cl- “ 108 103 – 112 70 – 130

HCO3+ “ 28 24 – 32 8 – 45

Glucose “ 85 75 – 95 20 – 1500

Body temp o
F/oC 98.4 (37) 98 – 98.5 65 – 110

Acid-base “ 7.4 7.3 – 7.5 6.9 – 8.0

Characteristics and Functions of the ECF cont.

The approximate non-lethal limits can be lethal over long periods. E.

g. high glucose levels causes diabetes, which can be lethal.

An increase in body temperature of over 6 – 7 oC over the normal rang

e can lead to a vicious cycle of increase cellular metabolic rate that can
be destructive to the cell.

 Note the very narrow range of the acid-base balance of the body – the
normal being 7.4 and the non-lethal levels being only +0.5.
 Characteristics and Functions of the ECF
cont.
The level of K+ ions in ECF is also a very important factor in the body.

 If the level of K+ ions fall below a third of its normal value, paralysis
might occur because the nerves will no longer be able to conduct impuls
es.

 If K+ ions rise over twice its normal value, the heart is likely to be dep
ressed severely.
HOMEOSTATIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

•The concept of maintaining a constant internal environment was introduced by the 19th century Fre
nch Physiologist, Claude Bernard.

•The concept was further developed by a 20th century Physiologist W.B. Cannon, who emphasized
that the stability of the ECF could be achieved through a carefully coordinated physiological proces
s.

• The activities of the cells, tissues and organs must be regulated and integrated with each other in s
uch a way that any change in the internal environment initiates a reaction to minimize the change.

• This process is called HOMEOSTATIS and the mechanism is referred to as the HOMEOSTATI
C MECHANISM
 HOMEOSTATIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM
The process is a compensation regulatory response that ensures that the mag
nitudes of changes that occur in the systems are kept with a narrow limit throu
gh a multiple coordinated homeostatic process.
 Essentially, all organs in the body perform functions that help to maintain thes
e constant conditions.
E.g. (1) The CVS plays an important role in the transport of nutrient and other
substances to sites where they are utilized and sites where they are eliminated.
For instance hormones are transports from points or origin to cells where they
are used.
 These substances may be converted into energy or into a variety of different
materials needed to build body parts in order to carry out body functions.
HOMEOSTATIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM
E.g. (ii) The excretory system is responsible for eliminating substances that are no longer needed by
the body.

 The kidneys are part of this system, which controls water and salt balance and aid the acid-base bala
nce in body fluids.

The nervous system is responsible for the transmission of signals between different parts of the body
.

 The nerve endings release ions (e.g. Na+) that modify the acidity of other cells.

 The impulse transmitted by the nerve cells (neurons) allows cells to respond to changes and effect
movement.

 This coordinated action and reaction of the different cells tissues, organs and systems is what maint
ains the homeostasis of the body.
HOMEOSTATIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM
 The endocrine system contain endocrine glands that secrets hormones,
which have strong influence on the chemistry and function of the body.

 Thyroxin and calcitanin are secreted by the thyroid gland located at th

e base of the neck to affect breakdown of food substances and the develo
pment of bone, respectively.

 Insulin controls glucose metabolism, whilst the adreno-cortical hormo

nes.
 Homeostatic Control System
 A homeostatic control system is defined as a collection of interconnecting cells
that function to maintain a particular physical and/or chemical property of th
e internal environment.
 An example of a homeostatic control system: The control of a constant temp
erature.
A resting man that is slightly dressed in a room with temperature 20 oC has an inter
nal body temperature of 37oC.
 This means that he is losing heat to the external environment through a thermal gr
adient.
However, the chemical reactions occurring within the body will produce heat at a
rate which is equal to the heat loss from the body.
 Homeostatic Control System
 Under these circumstances, there is no net gain or loss of heat and the body t
emperature remains constant.

 Such a system is said to be in a steady state, in which case the variable (heat)
is kept constant and this is maintained by adding energy.

 However, steady state differs from equilibrium state in that the later infers ke
eping a variable relatively constant without any addition of energy.

 This steady state temperature is called the operating point of the thermo-regu
latory system.
 Homeostatic Control System
A number of generalizations can be made about the homeostatic system as follows:

1. The stability of an internal environment is achieved by balancing input and output.

2. The stability of an internal environment variable will depend upon the balance betwe
en the value of the input and output.
3. The homeostatic control system cannot be maintain complete constancy of the intern
al environment as long as there is a persistent change in the external environment
4. The regulated variable in the body cannot be assigned a single value but has or less a
narrow range of values depending on the external conditions.
5. There relative interdependence of different control systems in homeostatic.
The components of homeostatic system
•All homeostatic systems belong to a general category of stimulus response sequen
ce known as a reflex arc.

• A reflex response means an involuntary, unpredictable unlearned or innate respon

se to a stimulus.

• Although in some reflexes we are aware of the stimulus or the response, many ref
lexes regulating the internal environment occur without our conscious awareness.

• An example is pulling ones hand away from an object or shifting ones eyes as an
object rapidly approaches the face or even the knee jerk.
 The components of homeostatic system
•There are also many other responses that happen to be automatic or stereotype but they occur
rapidly as a result of learning and practice.

• For example an organist playing many keys with four or more fingers and playing pedals wit
h his feet at the same time or a driver performing complicated movements simultaneously or e
ven a professional typist.

• As far as the organist/driver/typist is concerned, these movements are largely automatic stere
otype and unpredictable.

• In actual fact they are a result of great deal of conscious effort put into learning these move
ments and the dexterity acquired after long periods of performing these movements. Such refl
exes are called acquired or learned reflexes.
 The components of homeostatic system

• In general most reflexes, no matter how basic they may appear to be, they are s
ubject to alteration by learning, i.e. there is a clear distinction between a basic
reflex and one with a learned component.

• Normally a basic reflex, especially these that control homeostatic mechanisms

are not subject to alteration.

• They are purely innate responses over which the individual do not have contro
l.
 The components of homeostatic system
•The components of a basic reflex (stimulus-response mechanism) are as fo
llows:
•Stimulus – This is the detectable change in the environment; the internal o
r external. E.g. change in room temperature and change in blood pressure.
• Receptor – This is what detects the change in the environment.
• A stimulus acts upon the receptors to produce a signal or impulse that is i
ntegrating center.
• The skin is the most important receptor of change in external environment
. Normally a receptor is supplied with high density of nerve endings and
capillaries.
• The receptor sends signal to integrating center.
 The components of homeostatic system
•Integrating Centre – This component interprets the impulse, including its type and intensity.

•The 1oC may receive impulse from many different kinds of receptors (e.g. eyes and skin and nos
e), some of which may be receiving different types of impulses.

•The 1oC operates in such a way that it integrates all the impulses and originates an output that refl
ects the total of the different inputs.

•An 1oC may be found in the central nervous system (CNS) or it may be a gland.

• For e.g., the pancreas serves as an integrating center for interpreting the impulses that indicate in
crease or decrease sugar level in blood.

•The output of an 1oC is sent to an effectors through the efferent pathway.

• The information from the 1oC gets to the effectors in the form of a command, directing the effect
ors what to do, thereby changing its activity.
 The components of homeostatic system
•Effector – This is the component that elicits the response in a system.

•The effector in a reflex arc is normally a muscle.

•Muscles are usually supplied with motor neurons.

• In some cases the effectors can be groups of cells or tissues.

•Response – This is the ultimate goal of a reflex arc or a homeostatic mechani

sm.

• The response is normally negative to the nature of the stimulus.

The components of homeostatic system
INTEGRATING CENTRE
(E.g. the CNS)
 

RECEPTOR
(E.g. the Skin) EFFECTOR
(E.g. the Muscle)
 

Schematic Diagram of a
Reflex Arc

STIMULUS RESPONSE
(E.g. Heat) (E.g. Withdrawal)

Thermoregulation – an example of a negative feedback reflex mechanism

 The components of homeostatic system
 With body temperature, the control system is so efficient that there is usuall
y a variation 1oC even though there is a large change in the external body tem
perature.
The change will hardly exceed 1oC.
If a man whose body temperature is 36.7oC enters a room that is 20oC feels c
old because he is losing heat to the environment.
The loss of heat is the stimulus that is detected by the sensitive nerve endings
of the skin.
This detected change generates an impulse that is transmitted through the aff
erent pathway that contains sensory nerves or neurons to the Integrating Cent
re (IC).
 The components of homeostatic system
•The IC is any organ, tissue or cell that receives, integrates/interpretes and
gives a command impulse.
•The most important IC is the central nervous system (CNS) where most o
f the impulses generated by the body’s sensitive nerves are directed.
•An endocrine gland or even a single cell can act as an IC.
• The IC in the case of thermoregulation, is the hypothalamus of the brain,
which receives the impulse and interprets it and generates a command im
pulse that is transmitted through the efferent pathway to a number of effe
ctor organs that elicits or carry out the appropriate actions or responses th
at increases body temperature, thereby maintaining a constant normal ran
ge in the body.
 The components of homeostatic system
•The following are the effector organs and their respective responses:
(1)Smooth muscles: these perform the following actions
a. Vasoconstriction - The lumen of the blood vessel contracts to reduce blo
od flow to the skin in order to reduce heat loss.
b. Body hairs stand on end to trap a layer of air that insulate the skin, there
by reducing heat loss to the environment
c. The heart beat faster to increase blood flow to transport oxygen and dist
ribute heat generated from metabolism to the rest of the body.
 The components of homeostatic system
2. Hormones: perform the following actions
a. Increase metabolic processes that generate heat. For example the breakdown of glucose in the
presence of oxygen to give metabolic heat.
b. Increase release of action hormone – adrenalin to facilitate more physical action.

3. Skeletal/Striated muscles: These muscles perform various actions that generate he

at.
c. Increase movement through muscular activities e.g rubbing of hand, jugging etc.
d. Shivering – generates heat through muscle action
e. The skeletal muscles also facilitate the performance of behavioral responses such as coiling-u
p, caressing, congregating
 The components of homeostatic system
INTEGRATING CENTRE
(E.g. the CNS)
 

RECEPTOR EFFECTORS
(E.g. the Skin)  
 
Hormones Smooth muscles Skeletal muscles
     
     

STIMULUS R E S P O N S E S
 
- Increased - Vasoconstriction - Increased exercise
Drop in body temperature
metabolism - Hairs stand on end - Shivering etc.
(-VE)
 
Increased Body Temperature
(+VE)
 
Negative feedback
 
A schematic diagram of the mechanisms involved in Thermoregulation, a negative
feedback mechanism
 
Categories of Homeostatic mechanisms – the homeostatic feedbacks

•Homeostatic mechanism ensures that the body responses to any change in the external or
internal environment.
•The nature of the response can take different directions depending on the desired goal of t
he homeostasis process.
•Thus homeostatic mechanism are categorized based on the direction of change as follows
1. Negative feedback mechanisms – these are mechanisms in which the responses alwa
ys oppose or are negative to the stimulus.
In other words, an increase in the variable (or homeostatic condition) in question cause a
decrease in that variable and vici versa.
Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are negative feedback. Examples are thermor
egulation, blood pressure regulation, blood sugar regulation etc.
Categories of Homeostatic mechanisms – the homeostatic feedbacks

2. Positive feedback – these are mechanisms in which the responses alw

ays enhance or increases the stimulus.

In other words, an increase in the variable (or homeostatic condition) in

question cause an increase in that variable.

Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are negative feedback.

Examples are thermoregulation, blood pressure regulation, blood sugar r

egulation etc.
 Local Homeostatic Responses

•There are additional biological responses that are of great importance to homeostasis.
• They resemble a reflex arc in that they involve a series of events proceeding from stim
ulus to response.
•Unlike a reflex arc, the entire sequence of events occurs only in the area of the stimulu
s. There are no nerves or hormones involved.
•Examples are as follows:
•1. Damage to an area of skin causes in the damaged area to release certain chemicals t
o fight and prevent further injury or damage and prevent infections
•2. An exercising muscle liberates or secretes in the ECF certain chemicals that act loca
lly in that locally to increase blood flow as a result of dilation of the blood vessels in tha
t particular area.
•The significance of local homeostatic response is that they provide individual areas of t
he body mechanism for self-regulation.
CHEMICALS AS INTERCELLULAR MESSENGERS IN HOMEOSTATIC S
YSTEMS

 Communication between cells is essential to reflexes and local responses; t

herefore it is important for homeostasis.
This communication can either be by means of nerves or hormones.
The communication by means of nerves involves the release of secretion of
certain chemicals from nerve ending to affect the activity of other cells.
These chemicals are known as NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
Communication by hormones involves the secretion of hormones by certain
cells in an endocrine gland into the blood to affect the activity of other cells.
Hormones may also be secreted from nerve ending and these are called NE
UROHORMONES.
CHEMICALS AS INTERCELLULAR MESSENGERS IN HOMEOSTATIC S
YSTEMS

There are two types of chemicals involved in local response – PARACRIN

ES and AUTOCRINES.

 Paracrines are synthesized by a particular cell in the area and secreted into
the ECF to diffuse into and affect the activity of cells in that locality.

 For autocrines, they are secreted by particular cells into the ECF and the c
hemicals diffuse back into the cells that secretes them to affect their activiti
es.