Irradiation

Preservation

Potential Food Preservation

Methods

- Sooraj S Rajasekharan
1
Contents
1. Introduction
2. History of Food Irradiation
3. Action of Ionization Irradiation
4. Sources of Ionization Irradiation
5. Principles of Irradiation
6. Dose and Dosimetry
7. Scope of Irradiation
8. Equipment
9. Advantages of Irradiation
10. Effects on Microorganisms
11. Effects on Food Components
12. Applications of Irradiation in Foods
13. Labelling
14. Major Problems
15. References

2
Introduction
 The irradiation process involves exposing the food, either
prepackaged or in bulk, to a predetermined level of ionization
radiation.

 Ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or

electron beams are capable of freeing electrons from their
atomic bonds (ionization) in the targeted food.

 This treatment is used to improve food safety by extending

product shelf-life.

3
History of Food Irradiation
 The first U.S. and British patents were issued for use of
ionizing radiation in foods in 1905.

 Food irradiation gained momentum in 1947 when researchers

found that foods could be sterilized and preserved for military
troops in the field.

 The Food and Drug Administration gave permission for the

expanded use of irradiation in the U.S. food supply in
1986.The FDA has approved food irradiation processes for
wheat, potatoes, pork, spices, poultry and fruits and vegetables
and red meat.

4
History of Food Irradiation
 Food irradiation was recognized by the United Nations which
established the Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation.
Their first meeting was in 1964.

 The committee concluded in 1980 that "irradiation of foods up

to the dose of 10 kiloGrays introduces no special nutritional or
microbiological problems."

5
Action of Ionization Irradiation
 Ionization radiation interacts with an irradiated material and
ionizes molecules by creating positive and negative ions by
transferring energy in the electrons .
 The radiation effects on biological materials are direct and
indirect.
1. In direct action, the chemical events occur as a result of energy
deposition by the radiation on the target molecule.

2. The indirect effects occur as a consequence of reactive diffusible free

radicals formed from the radiolysis of water -H2O2 is a strong oxidizing
agent and a poison to the biological systems, while hydroxyl radical is a
strong oxidizing agent and hydrogen radical is a strong reducing agent.
These two radicals can cause several changes in the molecular structure
of organic matter.
6
Sources of Ionization Irradiation
 There are two classes of ionizing radiation: electromagnetic
and particulate.

 These are gamma rays from radionuclide of Co-60 or Cs-137,

X-rays generated from machine sources operated at or below 5
MeV, and electrons generated from machine sources operated
at or below an energy level of 10MeV .

 Both isotopic and machine sources result in identical impacts

on foods, consumers would react more favorably to machine
sources than isotope sources because of the association of
isotopes with the nuclear industry.

7
Characteristics of Irradiation Sources
SL Radiation Characteristics
Source
1 Cobalt-60 High penetrating power
Permanent radioactive source
High efficiency
Source replenishment needed
Low throughput

2 Electron beams Low penetrating power

Switch on–switch off capability
High efficiency & High throughput
Power and cooling needed
Technically complex

8
Characteristics of Irradiation Sources
SL Radiation Source Characteristics

3 X-rays High penetrating power

Switch on–switch off capability

Low efficiency & High throughput

Power and cooling needed

Technically complex

9
Principles of Irradiation
 In practice three types of radiation may be used for food
preservation: Gamma rays, X-rays or high-energy electron beams (
particles). These are termed ionizing radiations.

 Gamma rays and X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum,

and are identical in their physical properties, although they differ
in origin.

 The energy of constituent particles or photons of ionising

radiations is expressed in electron volts (eV), or more conveniently
in MeV One eV is equal to the kinetic energy gained by an
electron on being accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V.

10
Principles of Irradiation
 When ionizing radiations penetrate a food, energy is absorbed.
This is the ‘absorbed dose’ and is expressed in Grays (Gy).

 The mode of action of ionizing radiation can be considered in

three phases:
1. the primary physical action of radiation on atoms;
2. the chemical consequences of these physical actions;
3. the biological consequences to living cells in food or
contaminating organisms.

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1.Physical Effects
 High-energy electrons interact with the orbital electrons of the
food. The orbital electrons are either ejected from the atom
entirely, resulting in ionization, or moved to an orbital of higher
energy, resulting in excitation. Ejected electrons of sufficient
energy can go on to produce further ionizations and excitations in
surrounding atoms.

 Electrons give up their energy within a few centimeters of the

food surface, depending on their energy, whereas or X-rays
penetrate much more deeply.

 The net result of these primary physical effects is a deposition of

energy within the material, giving rise to excited molecules and
ions.
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2.Chemical Effects
 The secondary chemical effects of irradiation result from
breakdown of the excited molecules and ions and their reaction
with neighboring molecules. The overall process by which these
reactions produce stable end products is known as ‘radiolysis’.

 The primary reactions include isomerization and dissociation

within molecules and reactions with neighboring species. The new
products formed include free radicals which are highly reactive.

 The major components of foods and contaminating organisms,

such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids, as well as
minor components such as vitamins, are all chemically altered to
some extent following irradiation.

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3.Biological Effects
 Ionizing radiation is lethal to all forms of life, the lethal dose being
inversely related to the size and complexity of the organism .

 The chemical changes of radiations alter cell membrane structure,

reduce enzyme activity, reduce nucleic acid synthesis, affect
energy metabolism through phosphorylation and produce
compositional changes in cellular DNA.

 The DNA damage may be caused by direct effects whereby

ionizations and excitations occur in the nucleic acid molecules
themselves. Alternatively, the radiations may produce free radicals
from other molecules, especially water, which diffuse towards and
cause damage to the DNA through indirect effects.

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Dose and Dosimetry
 The radiation dose is defined as the quantity of energy absorbed during
exposure.

 Traditionally, the dose of ionizing radiation absorbed by irradiated material

has been measured in terms of rad, but recently it has been superseded by
gray (Gy), which is equal to 100 rad .

 One Gy represents 1 J of energy absorbed per kilogram of irradiated

product and the energy absorbed depends on mass, density, and thickness of
food .

 The Codex Alimentarius Commission recommended 10 Gy as the

maximum energy level or dose of ionizing radiation. One Gy is equivalent
to 1 J of energy absorbed per kilogram of material .

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Dose and Dosimetry
 The energy level used for food irradiation, is normally
extremely low, e.g., 0.1 or 1.0 kGy, which would be equivalent
to a heat energy of 0.024°C or 0.24°C
 10 kGy of ionizing energy is equivalent to a heat energy of 10
J/g and the heat capacity of water is 4.2 J/g °C, i.e., 10/4.2
2.4°C. Thus, it is a cold method of food preservation.
 Irradiation is often referred to as a ‘’cold pasteurization’’
process as it can accomplish the same objective as thermal
pasteurization of liquid foods, milk, without any substantial
increase in product temperature.
 The absence of noticeable change and small rise in temperature
lead to difficulty in detecting whether food has been irradiated
or not.
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 Food irradiation doses are generally characterized as low (less
than 1kGy), medium (1–10 kGy), and high (greater than 10
kGy).

 Radiation treatments aimed at the inactivation of

microorganisms are conveniently classified as:
1. Radappertisation: a treatment which aims to reduce the number and/or
activity of microorganisms to such a level that they are undetectable.
Properly packaged radappertised foods should keep indefinitely, without
refrigeration. Doses in the range 25–50 kGy are normally required.
2. Radicidation: this aims to reduce the number of viable spore-forming
pathogenic bacteria to an undetectable level. Doses of 2–8 kGy are
normally required.
3. Radurisation: a treatment sufficient to enhance the keeping quality of
foods through a substantial reduction in the numbers of viable specific
spoilage organisms. Doses vary with the type of food and level of
contamination, but are often in the range 1–5 kGy.
17
Scope of Irradiation
 The potential applications of irradiation are
1. Disinfestations
1. Elimination of Parasites
2. Shelf-life extension
1. Delay of Ripening and Senescence
2. Inhibition of Sprouting
3. Decontamination
4. Product quality improvement
5. Miscellaneous Effects

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1. Disinfestation
 Disinfestation, the control of insects, in fruits can be achieved
by doses up to 3kGy. A low dose of 0.15–0.50 kGy can damage
insects at various stages of development that might be present
on the food. Irradiation can damage insect’s sexual viability or
its capability of becoming an adult.

Elimination of Parasites
 Irradiation treatment is feasible for the two major groups are
single celled protozoa and intestinal worms (helminths) which
can occur in meats, fish, fruit and vegetables.

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2. Shelf Life Extension
 The irradiation also extends the shelf life of perishable
products such as beef, poultry, and seafood by decontamination
of spoilage microorganisms.

 Usually, fruits progressively lose their resistance to

phytopathogens with ripening.

 When a low dose is used to delay ripening, a higher level of

resistance is retained in fruits, and microbial development is
also delayed as an added benefit.

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Delay of Ripening and Senescence
 Irradiation can be used either to delay senescence in fully ripe fruit, or to
extend the pre-climacteric life of unripe fruit. Applied doses of radiation are
usually limited to 2 kGy and often much less, due to radiation injury to the
fruit, leading to discoloration or textural damage.
 Irradiation can be used in some instances, and control of fungi or sprout
inhibition.
Inhibition of Sprouting
 The shelf life of tuber and bulb crops, such as potatoes, yams, garlic and
onions, may be extended by preventing sprouting.
 The inhibitory effect of irradiation on sprouting results from a combination of
two metabolic effects. Firstly, irradiation impairs the synthesis of endogenous
growth hormones such as gibberellins and indolyl-3-acetic acid, which are
known to control dormancy and sprouting. Secondly, nucleic acid synthesis in
the bud tissues, which form the sprouts, is thought to be suppressed.
 Treatments in the range 0.03–0.25 kGy are effective.

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3.Decontamination
 Irradiation can reduce microbial load and destruction of
pathogens.

 One form of decontamination could be the use of a low dose

(1.0–2.0 kGy) to pasteurize seafood, poultry, and beef.

 Another form could be a higher dose (3.0–20 kGy), such as

sterilization of poultry, spices, and seasonings.

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4.Product Quality Improvement
 A higher juice yield could be obtained if fruits are first
irradiated at a dose level of several kGy, thus improving
product recovery.

 Gas-producing factors in soybeans could be markedly

decreased with a sequence of soaking, germination, irradiation,
and subsequent drying of the beans.

 It also facilitates reduction of the need for chemicals used in

food, such as nitrite, and salts.

 Moreover, irradiation does not leave any chemical residues in

foods
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5.Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and
Processing
 There have been reports of improvements in the flavour of
some foods following processing.

 Chemical changes could result in textural changes in the food.

The most likely examples are depolymerisation of
macromolecules such as starch, which could lead to altered
baking performance or changes in drying characteristics.

 Irradiation may cause cellular injury in some fruits, giving

riseto easier release of cell contents and hence increased juice
recovery from berry fruits.

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Equipment
 Isotope Sources
 Co 60 is the major isotope source for commercial irradiation. It is
manufactured in specific reactors and over 80% of the world supply is
produced in Canada.

 Co 60 is produced from nonradioactive Co 59, which is compressed into

small pellets and fitted into stainless steel tubes or rods a little larger than
pencils.

 These are bombarded with neutrons in a nuclear reactor over a period of

about 1 year to produce highly purified Co.

 Cs 137 is an alternative possibility, but is much less widely used than Co 60.

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 Cobalt -60 Cesium-137

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Machine Sources
 Bothelectron and X-ray machines use electrons, which are accelerated
to speeds approaching the speed of light by the application of energy
from electric fields in an evacuated tube.

 Theresulting electron beams possess a considerable amount of kinetic

energy.

 Themain designs of electron irradiator available are the Dynamitron,

which will produce electron energies up to 4.5 MeV, or linear
accelerators for higher energies.

 When electrons strike a target, they produce X-rays which can be

utilized to give greater penetration depth,. X-rays are produced by
firing high-energy electrons at a heavy metal target plate.

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 Co-60 Irradiation
Facility

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Advantages of Irradiation
 Five advantages of irradiation are:

1. Minimize Food Losses

2. Improve Public Health

3. Increase International Trade

4. An Alternative to Fumigation of Food

5. Increase Energy Saving

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1.Minimize Food Losses

 Radiation disinfestations and shelf-life extension can reduce

the food losses of fresh foods. Postharvest losses due to insect
infestation can be controlled and minimized by irradiating
foods such as grains, pulses, tubers, and fruits. Shelf life of
tubers and some fruits can be extended through sprout
inhibition or delayed ripening.

 A potential added benefit of the application of irradiation to

fruits is the increase in juice yield during processing of several
commodities

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2.Improve Public Health

 Foods, especially muscle foods, are contaminated with

pathogenic microorganisms or parasites. The decontamination
of these fresh foods by irradiation can improve public health
concern.

 The use of irradiation up to 3.0 kGy to decontaminate poultry,

and up to 1.0 kGy to control Trichinella spiralis in pork
carcasses.

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3.Increase International Trade
 Many fresh foods are disqualified for international trade due to
(i) infestation by insects,
(ii) infection by microorganisms,
(iii)their limited shelf life, which restricts long-distance
shipments.

 Irradiation can increase or improve the trade of fresh foods

over international markets by providing an effective quarantine
procedure for infested or infected foods, or help to prolong the
shelf life.

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4.An Alternative to Fumigation of Food

 The use of chemical disinfestations treatments is rapidly

diminishing due to their toxic nature and environmental
impact, e.g., the toxic nature of ethylene oxide and the ozone
depleting effect of fumigant ethylene dibromide.

 Low-dose irradiation of 0.2–0.7kGy can control insect

infestation of grain and other stored products.

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5.Increase Energy Saving

 The energy used for irradiation of food is small compared to

canning, refrigeration, or frozen storage.

 Moreover, ban on CFC refrigerants could result in higher cost

of refrigerated food in the future, thus a combination of
irradiation and chilling has high potential in energy saving
during food processing .

 The reduction of energy requirements can also contribute

toward overall reduction of the pollution caused by
combustion products of traditional fuels .
34
Effects on Microorganisms
 Ionization irradiation affects microorganisms, such
as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, by causing lesions
in the genetic material of the cell, effectively
preventing it from carrying out the biological
processes necessary for its continued existence .

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Mode of Action
 The principal targets of irradiation are nucleic acids and
membrane lipids.
 Alteration in membrane lipids, particularly polyunsaturated
lipids, leads to perturbation of membranes and deleterious
effects on various membrane functions, such as permeability.
 Ionization radiations changes DNA structure which result in
prevention of replication or other functions. Nucleic acids,
because of their large size, are the main targets of free radicals.
 Chromosomes of bacteria are intrinsically very sensitive and
lethal damage occurs as a result of exposure to irradiation. The
ability of bacteria to repair a limited amount of such damage
gives them considerably greater resistance to such radiations.
 The most sensitive vegetative bacteria is Pseudomonas, and the
most resistant one is Deinococcus.
36
Level of Dose
 The factors that affect the susceptibility of microorganisms to
irradiation are
(i) dose level,
(ii) temperature,
(iii) atmosphere (presence or absence of oxygen),
(iv) medium,
(v) type of organism
 In general, the higher the dose applied, the lower the number of
survivors and the lower the temperature and the rate of
reactions, such as the formation of radicals from water
molecules. If the product is frozen, radical formation is
practically inhibited.

37
 Off-flavor development in products irradiated in a dry
state is less than that of moist products.

 The simpler the life form, the more resistant it is to the

effects of irradiation. Viruses are more resistant than
bacteria, which are more resistant than molds, which in
turn are more resistant than humans. Bacterial spores are
more resistant.

 Low-dose irradiation (below 1 kGy) controls the

infectivity of a number of food borne parasites.

38
39
Effects on Food Components

1. Effect on Proteins

2. Effects on Carbohydrates

3. Effect on Lipids

4. Effect on Vitamins

5. Effects on Enzymes

40
1.Effect on Proteins

 Low doses of irradiation may cause molecular uncoiling, coagulation,

unfolding, and even molecular cleavage and splitting of amino acids.
Peptide linkages were not attacked and sulfur linkages and hydrogen bonds
are attacked.
 Irradiation brings about unfolding of the protein molecule, leading to the
availability of more reaction sites .
 Irradiation also affects the functional properties of proteins. In case of eggs
side effects, such as loss of viscosity in the white and off-flavors in the
yolk . An egg irradiated with 6 kGy showed a thin watery condition, which
may be due to the destruction or alteration of ovomucin.
 The casein in milk resulted in an increase in rennet coagulation time and
reduced heat stability
 Flavor changes and off-flavors resembling the burnt flavor were observed in
irradiated milk. Irradiation of cheese usually produces smoky off-flavor`s.

41
2.Effects on Carbohydrates
 Irradiation can break high-molecular-weight carbohydrates into smaller
units leading to depolymerization.This process is responsible for the
softening of fruits and vegetables through breakdown of pectin.

 It may be advantageous in reducing juice yield and in reducing the drying

and cooking times of dehydrated products. Sugars may be hydrolyzed or
oxidized when subjected to gamma irradiation.

 These changes are highly advantageous in the generation of bread flavor

and aroma by reducing sugar–amino acids reactions.

 Irradiation of pure carbohydrates produced degradation products, which

have mutagenic and cytotoxic effects. However, these undesirable effects
were produced using very high dose of irradiation.

42
3.Effect on Lipids
 Irradiation initiates the normal process of autoxidation of fats which gives
rise to rancid off-flavors.

 Highly unsaturated fats are more readily oxidized than less unsaturated fats.

 This decomposition induces the formation of some volatile compounds

responsible for off-odors.

 The lipids in cereals degraded only at high doses of irradiation and no

significant effects on iodine value, acidity, or color intensity.

 The volatile oil content of spices has a reduction effect in black pepper and
ginger above 6 kGy.

43
4.Effect on Vitamins
 The extent of vitamin C, E, and K destruction depends on the
dosage used, and thiamine is very labile to irradiation.

 Vitamins particularly those with antioxidant activity, such as A,

B12, C, E, K, and thiamine, are degraded when irradiation is
carried out in the presence of oxygen .

 Irradiation can also partially damage vitamins C and B1.

Irradiation converts ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid,
which is also active as a vitamin

44
5.Effects on Enzymes
 Enzymes in foods must be inactivated prior to irradiation because it is much more
resistant to radiation than microorganisms.

 Complete inactivation of enzymes requires about 5–10 times the dose required for
the destruction of microorganisms.

 Thus, irradiated foods will be unstable during storage due to their susceptibility to
enzymatic attack than non irradiated foods .

 High resistance of enzymes to irradiation has been demonstrated with milk

phosphatase, which was not destroyed by irradiation doses sufficient to sterilize
milk.

 Enzymes are affected by the indirect effects of free radicals formed in solvent
phase.

 Thus, dilute solutions of enzymes are relatively more sensitive to irradiation than
are concentrated solutions.
45
Applications of Irradiation in
Foods
Plant Foods
 The transient rate of respiration reverted to pre irradiated levels within 24 h for 0.3
kGy, but slower with an increasing dose.
 Ethylene production also increased after irradiation and it reached a maximum at 1
kGy.
 At higher doses, climacteric fruits may not ripen normally and may develop uneven
coloring and skin discoloration.
 Fruits suffer physiological disorders when exposed to radiation beyond their limits of
tolerance. These undesirable symptoms are mainly tissue softening and enzymatic
browning .
 Tissue softening is caused by
 (i) partial depolymerization of cell wall polysaccharides, mainly cellulose and
pectins
 (ii) damage to cell
 The oxidation can be minimized by irradiating in an atmosphere with reduced oxygen
content, but treatment efficiency is reduced.

46
1.Spices
 There is an increasingly important use of irradiation for decontamination
of spices.

 Spices imported into Western Europe are often heavily contaminated by

pathogenic microorganisms as a consequence of open air drying
procedures.

 A dose of 2.5 kGy reduced the fungal and bacterial load by 2 log cycles,
and 7.5 kGy eliminated the fungal population of ground or whole pepper.

 the treatment of garlic bulbs with 0.15 kGy can inhibit sprouting and
reduce weight losses during storage.

 The quantities of some major volatiles were significantly decreased in

irradiated rhizome after 3 months of storage.
47
2.Fruits and Vegetables
 Berries
The postharvest shelf life of cherries, blueberries, and cranberries can be
extended with low dose of irradiation. Blueberries irradiated at 0.25, 0.5,
0.75, or 1.0 kGy can be stored at 1°C for 1, 3, 7 days, respectively, and 2
additional days at 15°C .
 Mangoes
Mango preservation would greatly benefit from the irradiation
treatment. The optimal dose was 0.75 kGy for three-quarter ripe fruits at
room temperature . Combined with a mild heat treatment by hot water
dip yielded even better results .
 Carrots
Doses up to about 0.1 kGy had little effect on firmness of apples,
carrots, and beets, but rapid softening occurred at higher doses. The
effective range for control of rotting and sprouting is 0.1–1 kGy.

48
 Papaya
Papaya can tolerate up to 1 kGy –radiation.The surface color
development is not disrupted up to 2 kGy, flavor and aroma up to 4
kGy, and tissue breakdown up to 5 kGy. A dose of 0.75 kGy was
considered the optimum dose.
 Strawberries
Irradiation at doses of 1, 2, and 3 kGy effectively prolonged the shelf
life of strawberries stored at 4°C by 5, 13, and 16 days, respectively..
Irradiation enhanced sweetness of strawberries by reducing titratable
acidity in comparison with untreated sample.

49
3.Cereals and Grains
 Grains and cereals are treated with low doses of irradiation to eliminate
fungi. Irradiation doses in the range of 0.2–1.0 kGy are effective in
controlling insect infestation in cereals . Increasing the dose to 5 kGy
totally kills the fungal spores.

 Irradiation also affects various quality criteria of cereal grains . The amyl
graph peak viscosity and falling number values of flour decreased with the
increasing irradiation. At 10kGy, loaf volume and crumb grain were
impaired. Loaf volume and baking quality deteriorated above 5 kGy.

 Irradiation might be useful at 1kGy dose for the treatment of grain for
insect control without adversely affecting the grain quality. Above 1kGy
dose, irradiated samples exhibited lower scores for stickiness, firmness, and
bulkiness compared to unirradiated samples due to the deterioration in both
starch and gluten.
50
Animal Foods
 The irradiation is effective in preventing or delaying the microbial spoilage
of fresh meats and poultry. Irradiation at doses between 0.25 and 1kGy under
aerobic conditions increased microbiological shelf life, but accelerated
rancidity.

 Doses up to 2.5 kGy control Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria

monocytogenes, Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococus aureus, and
Escherichia coli in poultry and other meats.

 The doses in excess of 2.5 kGy may change flavor, odor, and color, but these
changes can be minimized by irradiating at low temperature or in absence of
oxygen .

 Irradiation treatment is not effective to stop the changes in meats. Thus,

irradiation coupled with vacuum packaging has the potential to extend the
shelf life.
51
1.Poultry
 At a low dose, all microorganisms are not destroyed and survivors
such as Moraxella, Acinetobacter, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus
can cause spoilage .

 Doses of 2–2.5 kGy are effective in controlling Listeria and a dose of

1.0–2.5kGy is adequate to eliminate Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
2.5–5.0 kGy for elimination of Serratia marcescens .A dose of 1.50
kGy was effective for Staphylococcus aureus in deboned chicken
when irradiated in vacuum at 0°C and held at 35°C for 20 h.

 In case of Escherichia coli in chicken meat, a 90% decrease of viable

cells could be achieved by doses of 0.27 kGy at 5°C and 0.42 kGy at
–5°C

52
2.Mutton
 Irradiation of vacuum-packaged mutton backstraps at 4kGy
prevented the growth of bacteria for at least 8 weeks at 0°C–1°C .

 However, at these high doses adverse effects on sensory attributes

and increased volume of weep released were observed.

 Meat chunks irradiated at 1.0 and 2.5kGy were acceptable for 3 and
5 weeks, respectively, whereas for minced meat it was 2 and 4
weeks.

 In contrast, unirradiated meat chunks and mince spoiled within 1

week of storage at 0°C–3°C .

53
3.Beef
 Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, and Brocothrix thermosphacta
were strongly inhibited in irradiated samples of beef meat and
sensory properties were not altered .

 The shelf life of vacuum packaged raw meat can be extended

considerably with doses ranging from 1 to 5 kGy, which also yielded
satisfactory sensory quality .Toxin production by pathogens was also
delayed by irradiation.

 Postmortem aging of beef is typically done by holding carcasses or

cuts between –1°C and 4°C for up to 3 weeks. Carcass aging at high
temperature followed by irradiation could reduce microbial numbers.

54
4.Pork
 A low-dose irradiation treatment between 0.30 and 1.0 kGy might be
used to inactivate the parasite Trichinella spiralis in pork.

 Radiation reduced the numbers of mesophiles, psychrotrophs,

anaerobic bacteria, and Staphylococci throughout storage. Effects of
irradiation on sensory characteristics of pork loin are minimal.

 Significant organoleptic (color, odor, and flavor) changes occurred

up to 1.0 kGy.

 Shelf life increased from 8 to 11.5 days for vacuum-packaged ground

pork irradiated at 1 kGy when stored at 5°Cand from 4 to 6 weeks at
0°C .

55
5.Processed Meats
 The amount of nitrite required in cured meats can be reduced by
irradiation, thus the chance of nitrosamine formation can be lowered.
The nitrite levels in irradiated bacon can be reduced from normal
levels of 120–150 to 20–40 mg/kg without loss of organoleptic
quality .

 Enterobacteriaceae was effectively inactivated by irradiation with

doses of 1–2 kGy and sensory effects are minimal.

 The product could be stored up to 5–7 days when treated at 2 kGy.

The ground beef patties irradiated at 2.0 kGy under vacuum
remained unspoiled even after 60 days of refrigerated storage

56
6.Fish and Fish Products
 The control of pathogenic organisms and the extension of shelf life of
fresh fish could be achieved with relatively low doses 2.5 kGy. However,
Clostridium botulinum present in fish and fish products remained
unaffected by the low doses of irradiation.

 In case of dried fish (moisture <20%) a dose of 0.3 kGy is sufficient to

control insect attack and their larvae, but at higher levels of moisture
from 20% to 40% a dose of 0.5 kGy is required.

 Control of the mold growth by irradiation alone requires doses of 3–5

kGy .

 Typical doses up to 2.5 kGy are generally adequate to control the

spoilage bacteria and extend the shelf life of fresh fish.

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Labelling
 Irradiated foods must be labeled as “Treated with Irradiation” or
“Treated by Radiation” and must display the irradiated “radura”
symbol

Radura Symbol

 According to USFDA,the terms “electronically pasteurized” or “cold

pasteurized” may be used to replace the use of “irradiated” on labels.
 These terms are designed to remove the negative stigma of the
irradiation label and fool consumers about what’s been done to their
food.

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Major Problems of Irradiation
 Irradiation has high capital costs and requires a critical minimum capacity
and product volume for economic operation .

 At low doses all microorganisms and their toxins will not be eliminated.
The response of each individual batch of fruits is therefore difficult to
predict; thus, generalized dose levels and their consequences in quality are
difficult to be developed.

 High doses above 30 kGy cause physical changes in plastic films.

Irradiation of foods in plastic containers produces of gas and volatiles
compounds, which may migrate into the food.

 Irradiated foods should be properly handled and stored after treatment to

avoid deterioration, spoilage, and loss of nutritive value.

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Legal Aspects and Safety Issues
 A joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Food Irradiation
(IJECFI) concluded that irradiation of food up to an overall average
dose of 10 kGy causes no toxicological hazards and introduces no
special nutritional or microbiological problems.
 The safety issues of irradiated foods can be grouped as
(i) residual radioactivity,
(ii) free radicals and radiolytic products,
(iii) carcinogenic and mutagenic properties,
(iv) nutrient quality,
(v) polyploidy,
(vi) toxicity,
(vii) microbiological safety, and
(viii) operator safety during processing.

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Consumers’ Attitude
 There are four reasons for the slow commercialization of food
irradiation- antinuclear activism, industry’s hesitation, time-
consuming approval process, and insufficient consumer education.

 In advanced countries consumers at large are still not knowledgeable

about food irradiation. They need accurate information about safety,
benefits, and limitations of food irradiation.

 The major ways to increase the acceptance of irradiated foods:

(i) educational programs to increase consumers’ understanding about irradiation,
(ii) propagate information about safety of irradiation through label and a poster,
(iii)television shows, children interactions, and pamphlets or brochures, and
(iv) in-store sampling of cooked irradiated poultry.

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References
 Shafiur Rahman M.,1999. Hand Book of Food Preservation, Marcel
Dekker, Inc, New York

 Manay, N.S, Shadaksharaswamy, M.,2004, Foods- Facts and

Principles, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.

 James G. Brennan, 2006. Food Processing Handbook, WILEY-VCH

Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,Weinheim, Germany

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 Thank You!
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