Topics to be Discussed

 Additions of Phasors
 DC and AC Currents.
Using Complex Numbers.
 A Sinusoid.
 Some Definitions.
 Power and Power Factor.
 Phase Difference.  Purely Resistive Circuit.
 Physical Model for a  Purely Inductive Circuit.
Sinusoid.  Inductive Reactance.
 Average of a sine wave.  Purely Capacitive Circuit.
 Capacitive Reactance
 RMS or Effective Value.
 Concept of Phasors.
 Operations on Phasors.

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 Difference between
DC and AC Currents
In dc circuits, when a current of 3 A adds to another current of 4 A, the net current
is always 7 A.
However, an ac current of 3 A when added to another ac current of 4 A can result
anything between 1 A and 7 A, depending upon their relative phase.
It is similar to adding a force of 3 N to another force of 4 N. The result is not
necessarily a force of 7 N. It be anything between 1 N to 7 N, depending on their
relative directions. These are added vectorially.

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 Does it mean that KCL does not apply
to AC Circuits ?

 Ans. :Yes, it does apply. However, the ac

currents are added in a Phasor Diagram.

I  I1  I 2

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A Sinusoid

(a) Current i versus angle ωt. (b) Current i versus time t.

i  I m sin t

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 Some Definitions

Amplitude (or peak value) : It is the maximum value, positive or negative, of

an alternating quantity.
Instantaneous Value : It is the value of the quantity at any instant.
Time period (T) : It is the duration of one complete cycle.
Frequency (f) : It is the number of cycles that occurs in one second.

1
f 
T
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Angular Frequency : Angular frequency,
denoted as ω, is equal to the number of
radians covered in one second. Its unit is
rad/s. Since one cycle covers 2π radians
and there are f cycles in one second, the
angular frequency is given as

2π
  2 πf or 
T

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Phase : It is the fraction of the time-period or cycle that has elapsed since it
last passed from the chosen zero position or origin. The phase at time t
from the chosen origin is given by t/T.
Phase angle : It is the equivalent of phase expressed in radians or degrees. It
is denoted as θ. Thus, phase angle, θ = 2πt/T.
Phase difference : It is the angular displacement between two alternating
quantities.

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A rotating bar generates
a sinusoidal wave.

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 Physical Model for a Sinusoid

(a) A rotating crank. (b) Sinusoidal waveform.

The vertical projection of the rotating crank is its

length times the sine of the angle θ.

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 Phase Difference

(a) Displacement by (b) Displacement by 

to the left to the right
It has become normal practice in electrical engineering to
express ωt in radians and the angle in degrees.

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 (c) Displacement (d) Displacement
by 90° to the left. by 180°.

Note that the resulting position of the waveform is the

same whether the phase shift is 180° (π rad) to the left,
or 180° to the right.
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Example 1
A sinusoidal voltage is 20 V peak-to-peak, has a time of
5 ms between consecutive peak and trough, and at t =
0 is –3.6 V and decreasing. Find the equation for the
instantaneous value of the voltage, and the value of
the voltage at t = 12 ms. Click

NOTE : First draw the Click

waveshape, then start
the solution.

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Solution :
V p  p 20
Vm   10 V; T  2  5 ms  10 ms;
2 2
1 1 1
 f    3
 100 Hz
T 10 ms 10 10

   2f  2π  100  628.3 rad/s.

Therefore, the sinusoid voltage is of the form Click

v  10sin(628.3t   ) V
Now, we are given that at t = 0, v = –3.6 V. Putting these
values, we get

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  3.6  10 sin( ) or sin   0.36
 Acute angle,   21.1
   158.9 or 338.9
• As shown in figure, the given sinusoid is shifted to Click
right by angle , which is less than 180°.
• Also, we know that shifting rightward means there is
a lag of angle . Therefore, the equation of the given
sinusoidal voltage is Click

v  10sin(628.3t  158.9) V
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 The value of voltage at 12 ms, Click

 180 
v(t  0.012s)  10sin  628.3  0.012   158.9  V
 π 
 10sin  432  158.9  V  9.985 V

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Different Values of AC
Average (or Mean) Value : It is the arithmetic sum of all
the values divided by the total number of values.
Average Value of AC : It is equivalent direct current,
which transfers the same charge as transferred by that ac
current in the same time.

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Average of a sine wave

The average of a sine wave over a full cycle is zero.

For this reason, whenever we talk of the average value of an ac wave, we
mean average value of half-cycle only.

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 2I m
Or I av 


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 Following two waves have the same
average value.

(a) Sinusoidal ac current. (b) Full-wave rectified current.

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Output of half-wave Rectifier

The average value is given as

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It is obvious that the average value of half-wave rectified current is just half of
the average of full-wave rectified current.

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RMS or Effective Value
It is equivalent dc current, which when flows through the given circuit
produces same amount of heating.
Let us try to find the waveform of instantaneous power in a resistor due to an
ac current.

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Instantaneous Power

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 p  i 2 R  RI m2 sin 2  t
2 2 2
RI RI RI
 1  cos 2 t  
m
 cos 2 t
m m
2 2 2
2
Im
 Pav  R
2
Comparing the dc and ac average power,
1 2 1 2
I R  ImR
2
or I  Im
2

2 2
Im
 I eff 
2

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Let us again examine the procedure of finding the
Ieff
1 2
T
 1 2 
T
Pav   i R dt    i dtR
T0 T 0 
This power, we equated to Ieff2R. Thus, we
find that

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Note that the rms value is always greater than the average value, except for a
rectangular wave.
For a rectangular wave, both the rms and average values are same.
For full-wave rectifier, Irms is same as that for AC.

Im
I rms 
2
 For half-wave rectifier, Irms can be determined as
Im Click
I rms 
2

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 Important Factors

Form Factor : It is the ratio of rms value to the average value of an

alternating quantity.

I rms
Kf   1.11 (for sinusoidal).
I av

 Form factor has less value for less peaky

wave. For square wave it is 1.0, for triangular
wave it is 1.15.

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Peak (or Amplitude ) Factor : It is the ratio of
maximum value to the rms value.

Im
Kp   1.414 (for sinusoidal.)
I rms

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Concept of Phasors
The rotating bar that generates a sinusoid can be taken as a phasor.

The phasor Vm is in reference direction, but phasor Im

lags behind Vm by .
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Thus, we can write,
v(t )  Vm sin t and i (t )  I m sin (t   )

• Phasor Diagram : It is a diagram containing

the phasors of inter-related sinusoidal voltages and
currents, with their phase differences indicated,
 It can be drawn either in terms of peak
values or rms values.

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Note that the phase of two sine waves can
be compared only if
1. Both have the same frequency.
2. Both are written with positive
amplitude.
3. Both are written as sine functions, or
as cosine functions.

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Algebraic Operations on Phasors
Suppose, we wish to add two phasors,

i1  I m1 sin t and i2  I m2 sin (t   2 )

We can find the sum of i1 and i2 in following three ways :

1. By using the plots of waveforms.
2. By using trigonometrical identities.
3. By using the concept of phasors.

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(1) By Using The Plots of
Waveforms.

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(2) By Using Trigonometrical
Identities
i1  i1  i2  I m1 sin t  I m2 sin (t   2 )
 I m1 sin t  I m2 [sin t cos  2  cos t sin  2 ]
 I m1 sin t  ( I m2 cos  2 ) sin t  ( I m2 sin  2 ) cos t
 [ I m1  ( I m2 cos  2 )]sin t  ( I m2 sin  2 ) cos t
Let us put
a  I m1  ( I m2 cos  2 ) and b  I m2 sin  2
 i3  a sin t  b cos t
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 This can be written as
i3  a  b sin (t   3 )
2 2

Where,
b
I m3  a  b
2 2
and 3  tan
1

a
• Though this procedure does not require us to
plot the sinusoid curves, it is
too cumbersome.
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(3) By Using The Concept of Phasors

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Thus, we find that two sinusoids can easily be
added by a phasor diagram.
Since we usually refer to their effective values
and not their peak values, the phasor diagram
can be drawn in rms values directly.
Even more important is that we need not even Click
draw the phasor diagram.
Phasors can be added simply by using complex
numbers.

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Additions of Phasors Using
Complex Numbers
Let us add two phasors I1 and I2,
I1  I10 and I 2  I 2  

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Finding the components along the real and
imaginary axes,
I1  I1  j 0; I 2  I 2 cos  2  j I 2 sin  2
 I 3  I1  I 2  ( I1  j 0)  ( I 2 cos  2  j I 2 sin  2 )
 ( I1  I 2 cos 2 )  j I 2 sin  2
We can write the result as
I 3  I 3 sin(t   3 )
where, I  ( I  I cos  ) 2  ( I sin  ) 2 Click
3 1 2 2 2 2

I 2 sin  2
 3  tan 1

I1  I 2 cos  2

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Example 2

Find the expression for the sum of the currents

i1  10 2 sin t A and i2  20 2 sin(t  60) A
Also, determine the rms value of the sum of
these two currents.
Solution : Since we need to find the expression,
there is no need to first find the rms values of the
two phasors. We can directly write the peak
values as complex numbers,
I m1  10 20 A and I m2  20 260 A

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 Using fx-991-ES, the summation of these two currents
is given as
I m  I m1  I m2  (10 20  20 260) A Click

 37.4240.9 A
The resultant current i can be written in time domain as
i  37.42 sin(ωt  40.9°) A Click

The rms value,

I m 37.42
I   26.46 A
2 2

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 Power and Power Factor

(a) AC source delivering (b) Waveforms of voltage,

power to a load. current and power.

v  Vm sin t and i  I m sin(t   )

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 Let the effective values be

V  Vm / 2 and I  Im / 2

Apparently, it seems that the power going to the load

should be equal to VI.
But the real power is the average of the
instantaneous power.
Let us write the expression of instantaneous power,

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 p  vi  [Vm sin t ][ I m sin(t   )]  Vm I m sin t sin(t   )
Vm I m
 [cos{t  (t   )}  cos{t  (t   )}]
2
Vm I m
  [cos  cos(2t   )]  VI [cos  cos(2t   )]
2 2
 VI cos  VI cos(2t   ) Click

• The average value of the second term is zero.

• Thus, the average power or actual power or real
power consumed by the load is given as
P  VI cos 

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Power Factor

It is defined as the factor by which the apparent

power is to be multiplied so as to get the real
power. Thus,
power factor ( pf )  cos
• If the current i lags the voltage v, as is
usually the case, the pf is called lagging pf and
is assigned a positive sign.
• In case the phase angle is zero, the circuit is
said to have unity pf. The real power is then
same as the apparent power.

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Example 3
In an ac circuit, the instantaneous voltage and
current are given as
v  55sin t V and i  6.1sin (t   / 5) A
Determine the average power, the apparent
power, the instantaneous power when t (in
radians) equals 0.3, and the power factor in
percentage

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Solution : The phase angle,  = π/5
The rms values are
Vm 55 Click
V   38.89 V
2 2
I m 6.1
I   4.31A
2 2
Therefore, the average power, Click
Pav  VI cos   38.89  4.31 cos  / 5
 167.62  0.809  135.6 W
The apparent power, Click
Pa  VI  38.89  4.31  167.62 VA

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The instantaneous power at ωt = 0.3, Click

p  VI cos   VI cos (2t   )

 135.6  167.62  cos (2  0.3   / 5)  31.95 W

The power factor, Click

pf  cos   cos  / 5  0.809  80.9%

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Behaviour of R, L and C in AC
Circuits
We shall study the steady-state response of R, L
and C to a sustained sinusoidal function.
We shall establish the phase angle relationships
between V and I.
These relationships remain fixed irrespective of
how the components are connected in a circuit.

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 Purely Resistive Circuit

(a) Resistive circuit.

(b) Voltage and current
waveforms.
The two waveforms are in
phase with each other; the
(c) Phasor diagram circuit has unity pf.

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Power waveform for a resistive
circuit.

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 Purely Inductive Circuit

(a) Inductive circuit. (b) Voltage and current waveforms.

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(c) Phasor diagram (d) Phasor diagram
(with I reference). (with V reference).
• Note : We are at full liberty to take any
phasor as reference
• The current lags the applied voltage by π/2.

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Analysis :

We start with the assumption that the current is

given as
i  I m sin t
di d
e   L   L ( I m sin t ) Click
dt dt
  LI m cos t  LI m sin (t  π/2)
• The induced emf e lags the current i by π/2.

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• The induced emf e opposes the applied voltage
v. Hence,
v  e  LI m cos t  LI m sin (t  π/2)
• It means that the applied voltage leads the current
by /2.
If I  I0  I  j 0; V  V90  0  jV
• Also, it means that the current lags applied
voltage by /2.
If V  V 0  V  j 0; I  I   90  0  jI

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Inductive Reactance

From v  LI m sin (t  π/2), we can write

Vm
Vm  LI m   L
Im
That is, the ratio of rms voltage to rms current,
V Vm / 2 Vm
   L
I Im / 2 Im

This is called inductive reactance,

X L  L  2πfL
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Power waveform for a purely inductive circuit.

The power consumed by the circuit is zero. Same amount

of energy keeps on flowing alternately from source to the
load and then from load to the source.
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The real power,
P  VI cos   VI cos 90  0

The power factor of the circuit,

pf  cos   cos 90  0 (lagging)

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Purely Capacitive Circuit

(a) Capacitive circuit. (b) Voltage and current

waveforms.

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 (c) Phasor diagram (d) Phasor diagram
(with V reference). (with I reference).

• The current leads applied voltage by π/2.

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Analysis

We start with the applied voltage,

v  Vm sin t
dv d
 iC  C (Vm sin t )
dt dt
 CVm cos t  CVm cos t

 CVm sin(t  π/2)

If V  V0  V  j 0; I  I90  0  jI

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Capacitive Reactance

From i  CVm sin(t  π/2), we can write

I m  CVm
Hence, if V and I are the rms values, the ratio
V Vm / 2 Vm 1 1
   
I I m / 2 I m C 2πfC
This is called capacitive reactance,
1 1
XC  
C 2 πfC
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Power waveform for a purely capacitive circuit.

• The average power and the power factor are given as

P  VI cos   VI cos 90  0
pf  cos   cos 90  0 (leading)
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Review

DC and AC Currents. Additions of Phasors Using

Complex Numbers.
A Sinusoid.
Power and Power Factor.
• Some Definitions.
Purely Resistive Circuit.
• Phase Difference.
• Physical Model for a Sinusoid. Purely Inductive Circuit.
• Inductive Reactance.
Average of a sine wave.
Purely Capacitive Circuit.
RMS or Effective Value. • Capacitive Reactance
Concept of Phasors.
• Operations on Phasors.

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