Learning and

Memory

Chapter 3
 Learning
• Refers to permanent change in behavior
caused by experience.
• Doesn’t have to affect the learner directly.
• Several theories explain learning:
- behavioral learning theories.
- cognitive learning theories.

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 The Learning Process

• Learning is a process.

• Products as reminders of life experiences

• Products + memory = brand equity/loyalty

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 Behavioral Learning Theories
• Assume that learning takes place as a
result of responses to external events.

• Classical conditioning & instrumental

conditioning

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• Learning = responses to external events
– “Black box”

Stimulus Consumer Response

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 Classical Conditioning
• Occurs when a stimulus that elicits a
response is paired with another stimulus
that initially does not elicit a response on
its own.
• Over time the second stimulus causes a
similar response because it is associated
with the first stimulus.

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 Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
• CS + UCS = response
– Over time: CS =
response
• Brand names as CS
– Credit card as CS
• Music, humor, imagery
• CS first, then UCS

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 Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Repetition of exposure
– Type of medium used
– Extinction
• Izod Lacoste crocodile
on baby clothes
– Beware of…
• Advertising wearout
• Frequent product
encounters

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 Discussion
• Some die-hard fans were not pleased when the
Rolling Stones sold the tune “Start Me Up” for
about $4 million to Microsoft, which wanted the
classic song to promote its Windows 95 launch.
Other rock legends have refused to play the
commercial game. Singer Neil Young is
especially adamant about not “selling out.”
– What’s your take on this issue?
– How do you react when one of your favorite songs
turns up in a commercial?
– Is this use of nostalgia an effective way to market a
product?
• Why or why not?
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 Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Stimulus Generalization
• The tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to
evoke similar responses
– Halo effect:
a cognitive bias in which an observer's overall impression of a person, company, brand, or
product influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that entity's.

- Listerine mouthwash
Family branding, product line extensions,
licensing, look-alike packaging

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 Discussion
• Identify some important characteristics of
a product with a well-known brand name.
– Based on these attributes, generate a list of
possible brand extension or licensing
opportunities, as well as some others that
would most likely not be accepted by
consumers.

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 Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Stimulus Discrimination
• When a stimulus similar to a CS is not
followed by a UCS.
– Brand positioning
– Cheap imitations

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 Semantic Associations
• Intel = “intelligent” + “electronics”
• Qualcomm = “quality” + “communications”
• Blackberry b = reliability & “berry” =
smallness

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 Instrumental Conditioning
• When individuals learn to perform behaviors
that produce positive outcomes
and to avoid those yield negative outcomes.
- Skinner
- While responses in classical conditioning are
involuntary and fairly simple, those in
instrumental conditioning are made in purpose
to obtain a goal and may be more complex.

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• Classical conditioning involves the close
pairing of two stimuli. Instrumental learning
occurs as a result of reward received
following the desired behavior.

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 Instrumental Conditioning
• Behaviors = positive outcomes or negative
outcomes
– Deliberate behavior to obtain a goal
• Positive reinforcement (reward)
• Ex: Perfume
– Frequency marketing, thank you letters, rebates,
follow-up phone calls
• Negative reinforcement Ex: Perfume(alone)
• Punishment Ex: Perfume (do nor wear it)
• Extinction Ex: Perfume (no more attr.)

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Instrumental Conditioning (Cont’d)
• Reinforcement schedules include…
– Fixed-interval (seasonal sales)
– Variable-interval (secret shoppers MCD)
– Fixed-ratio ( 10 times then a free time)
– Variable-ratio (Lottery)

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 Cognitive Learning Theory
• Internal mental process.
• People are problem-solvers.
• They use information from their contexts.

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 Cognitive Learning Theory
• The issue of consciousness: controversy
regarding whether the people are aware or not
of their learning. Subjects develop conscious
hypotheses and then act on them. Teenager
wears in a same way for a celebrity to get
attention.
• Observational Learning : People watch the
actions of others and reinforcement they receive
from others. Imitating and modeling

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Observational Learning (Cont’d)
• Modeling: imitating others’ behavior
– Bobo doll experiment
– http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html

PRODUCTION
ATTENTION RETENTION MOTIVATION
PROCESSES

OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING

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Marketing applications for Observational Learning

• Consumers attention should be directed to

appropriate model.
• Consumers must remember what is said
or done by the model.
• Consumers must convert this information
into action.
• Consumers must be motivated to perform
these actions.
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 Marketing applications for
learning
• Behavioral Learning Applications:
- Marketers and classical conditioning
principles (ex: association between
Marlboro Man and the cigarette is so
strong that the company does not need to
promote it.

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• Positive Brand Equity: to make brand has
strong positive associations in consumer’s
memory and commands a lot of loyalty.
• Repetition: more than three exposures are
wasting:
1st creates awareness.
2nd creates demonstrates its relevance to the consumer
3rd serves as a reminder of the products benefits

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• Conditioning product association: Ex: AD-
pen and music

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 Applications of stimulus
generalization
• Family branding – Heinz
• Product line extensions- Toyota, Sun Maid
• Licensing- MCD
• Look-alike packaging

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 Applications of stimulus
discrimination
• Consumers suffered with brand names
such as Omniplex, Optiplex, Premmia
- Aspirin
- Fine

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 Instrumental conditioning
principles
• Car dealer --- reluctant customer--- sit –
test drive---- so on
• Thank you so letter after every payment
• Frequency marketing: reinforces regular
purchases by prizes.

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 Cognitive Learning Principles
• Perfume and attention from a throng of
admirers
• Celebrity image is more than simple
stimulus response connections. It is a
combination of many attributes.
•

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 Role of Memory in Learning
• Memory: acquiring information and storing
it over time so that it will be available when
needed
• Information-processing approach
– Mind = computer & data = input/output

EXTERNAL ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

INPUTS
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• Encoding: The way we encode information
can help us retain it later
• Storage: Knowledge is integrated with what
already in.
• Retrieval: accessing the desired information.

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 Factors Influencing Forgetting
• Decay
• Interference : new
information took the
place of old.
• Part-list cueing effect:
when a portion of the
items is presented ,
the omitted not easy
recalled.

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 Products as Memory Markers
• Furniture, visual art, and photos call forth
memories of the past
• Autobiographical memories
– The marketing power of nostalgia
– Retro brand
– Nostalgia index

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 Products as memory makers
• Nostalgia: bitter-sweet emotion, where the
past is viewed with both sadness ad
longing. “the good old days”

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