Circuit and Analog electronics-CH7

Circuits and Analog Electronics
Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits
7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.2 Op Amp Circuits
7.3 Active Filter
7.4 Op Amp Positive Feedback
References:
References Floyd-Ch6; Gao-Ch7, 9;
Key Words:
Words
Op Amp Model
Ideal Op Amp
Op Amp transfer characteristic
Feedback
Virtual short
7.1 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp )
Symbol Positive voltage supply
Non-inverting input +
Output
Inverting input -
Negative voltage supply

• At a minimum, op amps have 3 terminals: 2 input and 1 output.
• An op amp also requires dc power to operate. Often, the op
amp requires both positive and negative voltage supplies (V+
and V-).
Symbol
• One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input

terminal denoted by ‘-’
• The other input terminal (2) is called a non-inverting input
terminal denoted by ‘+’
The Op Amp Model v+
Ro vo
Rin +
v- -
Inverting input - A(v+ -v- )
• The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage

signals applied to the two input terminals and then multiply it by a
gain factor A such that the voltage at the output terminal is A(v+-v-).
• The voltage gain A is very large (practically infinite). The gain A is
often referred to as the differential gain or open-loop gain.
• The input resistance Rin is very large (practically infinite). The output
resistance Ro is very small (practically zero).

Ideal Op Amp
Circuit model (ideal)
• We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage
source (VCVS) Ri    i  0, i  0
• The input resistance is infinite. RO  0  vO  A( v  v )
• The output resistance is zero.
• The gain A is infinite.
v+
Ro vo
Rin +
v- -
Inverting input - A(v+ -v- )
For A741, A = 100dB=105 ， if vo=10V ，

10
Then v   v   5  0.1mV
10
v  v 0.1 10 3
i    0.05nA
Ri 2 10 6
Op Amp transfer characteristic curve
saturation
active region
vo  A vi  A ( v  v )
Op Amp transfer characteristic curve
So far, we have been looking at
the amplification that can be
achieved for relatively small
(amplitude) signals.
For a fixed gain, as we increase
the input signal amplitude, there is
a limit to how large the output
signal can be. The output saturates
as it approaches the positive and
negative power supply voltages.
In other words, there is limited
range across which the gain is
linear.
v   v v o  V
v  v v o  V
Review
Ideal op amp characteristics:
• Does not draw input current so that the input impedance
is infinite (i.e., i1=0 and i2=0)
• The output terminal can supply an arbitrary amount of
current (ideal VCVS) and the output impedance is zero
• The op amp only responds to the voltage difference
between the signals at the two input terminals and ignores
any voltages common to both inputs. In other words, an
ideal op amp has infinite common-mode rejection.
• A is or can be treated as being infinite.
 R2
vo  A(v  v )  A(vIN  vo

)
R1  R2
Av IN
vo 
AR2
1
R1  R2
What happens when “A” is

very large?
Av IN
vo 
AR2
Closed-loop gain 1
R1  R2
Af=vo/vin
R1  R2
 v IN  Af v IN
R2
Gain
R1
Suppose A=106, R1=9R, R2=R, Af  (1  )
R2
vo  v IN 10
Closed-loop gain: determined by resistor ratio
insensitive to A, temperature

Negative feedback 􀃆
Why did this happen?

Observe, under negative feedback,
 R1  R2 
 v IN
vo  R1 
v  v   
A A
0 v  v
i  0, i  0
analysis method under negative feedback!
– Hence, we say there is a virtual short between the two terminals

(“+” and “-”) .

v  v i  0, i  0

Negative feedback 􀃆 v   v i  0, i  0
R1  R2  A v
vo  vIN f IN
R2
R1
Af  (1  )
R2
When R1=0, R2=,
vo  vIN
Buffer: voltage gain = 1

Voltage Follower

Negative feedback 􀃆 v  v i  0, i  0
R1
Af  (1  )
R2
vi  v vi
i1  
R1 R1
vo  v vo
i2  
R2 R2
i  i1  i2  0
vo R2
Af  
vi R1

vo R1 vo R
Af   (1  ) Af   2
vi R2 vi R1
• We can adjust the closed-loop gain by changing the ratio of R2
and R1.
• The closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of op amp open-
loop gain A (if A is large enough) and we can make it arbitrarily
large or small and with the desired accuracy depending on the
accuracy of the resistors.

The terminal 1 is a virtual ground

since terminal 2 is grounded.
Inverting configuration,
This is a classic example of what negative feedback does. It

takes an amplifier with very large gain and through negative
feedback, obtain a gain that is smaller, stable, and predictable. In
effect, we have traded gain for accuracy. This kind of trade off is
common in electronic circuit design… as we will see more later.

vi vi
Rin    R1
i1 vi / R1
Input Resistance:
Assuming an ideal op amp (open-loop gain A = infinity), in the
closed-loop inverting configuration, the input resistance is R1.

vt R1
i1  v1  vt
R2  R1 R1  R2
Output Resistance: AR1
vt (1  )
vt  ( Av1 ) R1  R2
i2  
Roa Roa
Roa is usually small and v Roa
R t 
so Rout is negligible when i2 1  A R1
R1  R2
A is large Rout  R ( R1  R2 )
Roa
Rout 
R1
1 A
R1  R2

vo R2
Af  
vi R1
vi
Rin   R1 Ro  0
i1 Inverting configuration,
We can model the closed-loop

inverting amplifier (with A =
infinite) with the following
equivalent circuit using a
voltage-controlled voltage
source…
Homework
Vo
1) Design a circuit to Af   0 .5
Vi
2) Find the vo=?


Review: Two fundamental Op Amp
Structure Af Input voltage Feed back

( )terminal ( )terminal
Inverting _ _
Amp
Non + _
inverting
Amp
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Key Words:
Words
Subtracting Amplifiers
Summing Amplifiers
Intergrator
Differentiator
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Consider this circuit:
v  v
i1  i2  0
vO  v  iR2
R2 v2  v 
vIN  v1  v
R2  R1  v  R2
R1
 R2  R
v2  v   v 1    v2 2
i  R1  R1
R1
R
 2  v1  v2 
R1
Subtraction
Let R1  R2 ,  vO  (v1  v2 )
!
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

v  v
i1  i2  0
Another way of solving —use superposition

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

R2
vo2   v 2
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

R1 + R2
vo1 = v+
R1
R2 R1 + R2
= v1
R1 + R2 R1
R2
= v1
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

R1 + R2
vo1 = v+
R1
R2 R1 + R2
R = v1
vo2   2 v 2 R1 + R2 R1
R1 R2
= v1
R1
R2
vo  vo1  vo 2  ( v1  v2 ) Still subtracts!
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Rf 2 Rf 2
vo1 v O  ( vO1  vS 2 )
R3 R5
Rf 1 1
 Rf 2( vS 1  vS 2 )
R1 R3 R5
vO1 Rf1 v S1 1
 Let R f 1  R1 , vO  R f 2 (  vS 2 )
v S1 R1 R3 R5
Rf1 Let R f 2  R3  R5 , vO  (vS1  vS 2 )

vO1   v S1
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Summing Amplifiers v o  k1vi1  k 2 vi 2   k n vin
For node N ，
vS 3 v S 2 vS 1 v
   o
R3 R2 R1 Rf
Rf Rf Rf
v o  ( vS1  vS 2  vS 3 )
R1 R2 R3
Let R1  R2  R3
Rf R R
vo   (v S 1  vS 2  vS 3 ) 
f
1  vo  (vS1  vS 2  vS 3 )
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Weighted Summer
v1 v v
We can also build a summer: i1  , i2  2 ,  , in  n
R1 R2 Rn
i  i1  i2    in
vo  0  iR f
Rf Rf Rf
vo  ( v1  v2    vn )
R1 R2 Rn
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Example 1 Design a summer which has an output voltage given

by vO=1.5vs1-5vs2+0.1vs3 。
Solution 1: R4
R3
R2
Rf1 Rf1  Rf 2 Rf 2 
we have ， vO1  ( v S1  vS 3 ) vO   vO1  vS 2 
R1 R3  R4 R2 
Rf1 Rf1 Rf 2 Rf 2
 1 .5 ,  0 .1 5 1
R1 R3 R2 R4
Let R1  2K , R f 1  3K ， R3  30K Let R2  2K ，R f 2  10K ，R4  10K
R5  R1 // R3 // R f 1  2 // 30 // 3  1.15 R6  R2 // R4 // R f 2  2 // 10 // 10  1.43
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Example 1 Design an summer which has an output voltage given

by vO=1.5vs1-5vs2+0.1vs3 。
Because R2 // R f  R4 // R1 // R3
Solution 2:
Rf Rf Rf
vO  v S1  vS 2  vS 3
R1 R2 R3
Rf Rf Rf
 1.5 , 5  0.1
R1 R2 R3
Let R2  2K
10  2
R f  10K ，R3  100K ，R1   6.7 K
3
2 // 10  100 // 6.7 // R4
20  670
R4   2.27 K
12  670  20  106.7
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Let’s build an integrator…
vO  k  vI dt
Let’s start with the following insight:
vI 1
vO  vC 
C  i dt
But we need to somehow convert voltage vI to current.

7.2 Op Amp Circuits
First try… use resistor
When is v small compared to v ?

O R
dvo
i C
dt dvO larger the RC,
vI  vR  vO  iR  vO  RC  vO
dt smaller the vO
When vR >>vO , for good integrator

ωRC >> 1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
There’s a better way…

7.2 Op Amp Circuits
There’s a better way…
v
i I
R
B
u
t
,
v
O
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Integrator vR  vI
1 t
vC  vC (0)   iC ( )d
C 0
vI  0
iC 
R
1 t
RC 0
vO (t )   vI ( )d  vC (0)
Vo ( j ) 1 jC 1
 
Vi ( j ) R jCR
How about in the frequency domain?
Vo ( j ) 1 j C 1
 
Vi ( j )
 R jCR
Vo ( j ) 1

Vi ( j ) CR

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

vR  vI
Integrator 1 t
vC  vC (0)   iC ( )d
C 0
vI  0
iC 
R
1 t
vO (t )  
RC  vI ( )d  vC (0)
0
Vo ( j ) 1 jC 1
 
Vi ( j ) R jCR
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Integrator
1 Vm Vm
v S  Vm sin  t vO  
RC  V m sin  tdt 
RC
cos  t 
RC
sin(90   t )
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Now, let’s build a differentiator…
Let’s start with the following insights:
But we need to somehow convert current to voltage.

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Differentiator
vo=-iR
7.3 Active Filter
Key Words:
Words
Basic Filter Responses
Low-Pass Filter
High-Pass Filter
Band-Pass Filter
Band-Stop Filter
7.3 Active Filter

Basic Filter Responses
.
Vi(t) Filter .V (t)
o vO ( s )
voltage gain A( s ) 
vi ( s )
S  j  Vo ( j )
Basic Filter Responses A( j )   A( j )  ( j )
Vi ( j )

Low-Pass Filter
bandwidth Transition region
stopband region
cutoff frequency
7.3 Active Filter

7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter

 1 j
 VO 1 / j c 1 0
A   

1    
2
Vi R 1 j 
j c 0 1    
 0
1
(O  )
RC
  0
  tg 1  45
0
7.3 Active Filter

High-Pass Filter

 VO R 1 1
A   

1 1 o
Vi R 1 1 j
j c jRc 
7.3 Active Filter

Advantages of Filter
1
 
1  1  RL
| A |max  1 V ( R // ) 
R  j c 
 1  jcRL
i L

j c  
A  L
1

1 
  RL
(R  // RL ) Vi R   1  jc  R
j c R  1  jcRL
 L 
RL

R Rj c
( R  RL )(1  L )
RL  R

RL RL /( R  RL ) Av
 
1  j cR' L 1  j 
O '
 1
where AV  RL ( R  R L ) O ' 
RL ' C
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
-20dB/decade
1
Vi ( j )
VO ( j ) j c 1 1
A( j )  
  
Vi ( j ) 1 
(R  )Vi ( j ) 1  j cR 1  j
j c O
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
AV Rf
1
R1

-20dB/decade
0 
1
f0 
2RC
1 Rf
Vi  1
 R   R  j c VO ( j ) R1 AVF
V0  V   1  f    1  f  A( j )   
 R1   R1  R  1 Vi ( j ) 1  j cR 1  j 
j c O
First-order (one-pole) Filter

7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
AV Rf
1
R1

-20dB/decade

-40dB/decade
0 
 R  1
V0  V   1  f  f0 
 R1  2RC
1
Vi  VO ( j ) 1
 R  jc A( j )   AVF 
 1  f  Vi ( j ) 1  3 jRC  ( jRC ) 2
 R1   1   1 
 R  / / R 
 jc   j c 
Second-order (two-pole) Filter

7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
Voltage-controlled voltage source V  V 
R3
R3  R f
(VCVS) filter
A
For simplicity, R1  R2  R C1  C 2  C

 Vo Af
A 
 1
Vi 1  (3  A f ) jRC  ( jRC ) 2 Q
3  Af
Af
 Rf
f 2 1 f Af  1 
1 ( )  j R3
f0 Q f0
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
Voltage-controlled voltage source    R f R3
V o VV  V
1    V  A f
 RR33  R f
(VCVS) filter
A
For simplicity, R1  R2  R C1  C 2  C
   Rf 
V o  V   1    V  A f
 R3 
Using super position: R // R  1  1
 
 j c  jc
V   1  V 0  
1  1  R 1
 R //  R  
j c  j  c  jc
V o  V  1  V  2    A f

1
 
jc
V  2   V 1
1  1 
R //  R  
j c  jc 
7.3 Active Filter

High-Pass Filter
1
1 SRC  1
• Transfer functions: AL   SRC  AH
1  j RC 1
1
SRC
• Circuit: R↔C
• Frequency domain
7.3 Active Filter

Band-Pass Filter
Vi Vo
Low-Pass High-Pass
A A A
A A A
AAff AAf f Aff
A
1 1
ωH ω ωL ω ωL ωH ω
Lower-frequency Upper-frequency
7.3 Active Filter

Band-Stop Filter
Low-Pass
Vi Vo
High-Pass
A A A
A A A
A
Af f 1 A
Aff AA
f f
ωh ωL ω ωh ωL ω
7.3 Active Filter

Example 2 For the circuit shown, show that what it is filter?
vO v
  i
R f // Z C R1

1
 Vo  R f // Z C Rf j c
A    
Vi R1 R1 R  1
j c
f
Rf 1 1
   AVF 
(a) R1 1  jR f c 
1 j
o
The Inverting First-order Low-Pass Filter.

7.3 Active Filter

vo vi
 
Rf R1  Z C
Rf
  Vi 
 Vo R1  Z C 1
A    Rf 
Vi 1
Vi R1 
j c
Rf 1 1
   AVF 
(b) R1 1  1 / jR1C 
1 j o

The Inverting First-order High-Pass Filter.

7.3 Active Filter

(c)
The Non-Inverting Band-Stop Filter(Second-order).

7.3 Active Filter

The Inverting Band-Pass Filter. The Inverting High-Pass Filter.

(Second-order) (Second-order)
Key Words:
Words
Positive Feedback
The Comparator
Oscillator

Positive Feedback
What’s the
difference?
Positive feedback drives op amp

into saturation: VoutVsaturation

Positive Feedback
vout  A( v  v )  Av 
vout  vIN
 A(  R1  v IN )
R1  R2
 R1 
 1  
 R1  R2 
vout  Av IN
 AR1 
  R R 
 1 2 
R2
R1  R2 R2
 Av IN    vIN
AR1 R1

R1  R2

The Comparator
The op amp is often used as a comparator.
The output voltage exhibits two stable states. The output
state depends on the relative value of one input voltage
compared to the other input voltage.
Threshold voltages
vi  VR ,
vi  VR ,
VO  VO H
VO  VO L
vi ( VR )  VTH

The Comparator

The Comparator

The Comparator vi
R1
- vO
t
+
vO
VOH
R1
- vO vo’ t
VOL
+ C
R vo’
t
R1
- vO v’O
vL
v
vLL
+ C
R RL
t

The Comparator
vi  0 , vO  (VZ  VD ) ( VO  VZ )
vi  0 , vO  VZ  V D

The Comparator
Transmission characteristics

The Comparator with Positive Feedback
Positive feedback is often used with comparator circuits. The
feedback is applied from the output to the non-inverting
input of the op amp.

The Comparator with Positive Feedback

The Comparator (Schmidt trigger)
The input has to change sufficiently to

trigger a change. e.g.( -7.5V 7.5V)
Only at vi  7.5V , v0 is switched from
15V to -15V.
hysteresis

When vi （ <0 ） <V+ ， vO=VO+ >0
， RF  
V1  VTH 1  (VR  VO )  VO
R2  RF
1
 ( RFVR  R2Vo )
R2  R F
When vi>VTH1 ， vOVO- <0 ，

RF
V 2  VTH 2  (VR  VO )  VO
VTH2 VTH1 R2  RF
1 
 ( RFVR  R2VO )
R2  R F
R2
VH  VTH 1  VTH 2  (VO  V O )
R2  RF

Why is hysteresis
useful?
e.g., analog to digital


Without hysteresis

Oscillator — can create a clock

There’s a better way…----triangular-wave generator


The Wien-Bridge Oscillator (RC Oscillator )
Op Amp Circuits
Positive Feedback
Lead-lag network

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
1
 R
c

1
 R
c
-

Resonant frequency?
-

1
 R //
  Vf j c 1 1
Vf 1 FV 

  
 1 1 1 1

3 VO R  R // R 3  j ( cR  )
VO j  c j  c j  c  cR
max
1
1
R //
j c 1
The phase shift through the network is 0 for  cR 
 cR
1
 2 f o Rc 
2 f o Rc
1
fo 
2 Rc
 
 V f 1



 Vo f f
V f 1  32  (  o ) 2
f  0 F 
  fo f
f f )
VO 3  j(  o 
fo f  1 f f
 f  arctg (  o )

 3 fo f

 a   f  2n
 
 VO VO R1  R2 R2
AVF  
   1 
R1  R1 R1
V R1 VO
R1  R2
Loop gain of
 1 causes a sustained constant
output | AVF F |  1
1  1
When f o  FV 
2RC 3
 1
 AVF  3
F
R2
1 3 R2  2R1
R1

All practical methods to achieve

stability for feedback oscillators
require the gain to be self-
adjusting. This requirement is a
form of automatic gain control.
 
| AVF F |  1 Negative temperature
 coefficient
 VO R  1
AVF  
 1 2 FV 
V R1 R1 3
R2
1 3
R1

The LC Oscillator
1 R L
Admittance y   2  j[ c  ]
Z R  ( L) 2
R  ( L)
2 2
1 1
( R  jL)  j L
j c j c
Impedance Z  
(1 j c )  ( R  j L) R  j ( L  1 )
c
L ZO
1  RC 
f0  1 L   f f
2 LC 1 j  (  o ) 1  jQ (  o )
LC R o  fo f
L
R2  (  R2 )
1 R  (0 L)
2 2
C L L  ZO
ZO     Q Z 
y0 R R RC C  f f
0 L  1  Q 2 (  o )2
Q --Quality Factor  fo f
R  f f
| Ic || IL |  | I |   arctgQ (  o )
 fo f

The LC Oscillator Frequency response curve
 ZO larger
 Z 
f f
 1  Q 2 (  o )2 smaller
 fo f
 f f
   arctgQ (  o )
 fo f
Resistors Circuit
larger
Inductance Circuit
smaller
1 f
Q(  o2 )
fo f 2
 f f  fo   f  f0  Q
1 f fo
1  Q 2 (  o2 )2 Capacitance Circuit
fo f

The RC(Phase-Shift) Oscillator

The LC Oscillator

The LC Oscillator
 +Vcc
+Vcc

  Vo
 Vo i
V

Vi

Circuit and Analog electronics-CH7

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Circuits and Analog Electronics

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

Negative voltage supply

• One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input

• The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

Circuit model (ideal)

• We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage

For A741, A = 100dB=105 ， if vo=10V ，

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

What happens when “A” is

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

analysis method under negative feedback!

– Hence, we say there is a virtual short between the two terminals

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

Buffer: voltage gain = 1

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

The terminal 1 is a virtual ground

This is a classic example of what negative feedback does. It

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

We can model the closed-loop

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

2) Find the vo=?

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

Structure Af Input voltage Feed back

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Another way of solving —use superposition

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Rf1 Let R f 2  R3  R5 , vO  (vS1  vS 2 )

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Example 1 Design a summer which has an output voltage given

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Example 1 Design an summer which has an output voltage given

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Let’s build an integrator…

Let’s start with the following insight:

But we need to somehow convert voltage vI to current.

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

First try… use resistor

When is v small compared to v ?

When vR >>vO , for good integrator

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

There’s a better way…

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

There’s a better way…

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits