Eddy Current Sensors

Eddy Current Sensors

 An eddy current is a local electric current induced in a
conductive material by the magnetic field produced by the
active coil. This local electric current in turn induces a
magnetic field opposite in sense to the one from the
active coil and reduces the inductance in the coil.
 When the distance between the target
and the probe changes, the
impedance of the coil changes
correspondingly. This change in
impedance can be detected by a
carefully arranged bridge circuit. The
eddy currents are confined to shallow
depths near the conductive target
surface. Their effective depth is given
by:
 Eddy Current Transducer
 The target material must be at least three times thicker
than the effective depth of the eddy currents to make the
transducer successful. This is because the transducer assumes that
the eddy currents are localized near the surface of a semi-infinite
solid, and the actual eddy current amplitude decreases quadratically
with distance.
 In practice, the effective range of an eddy current
transducer is given by the vendor suggested
range offset from the target surface by 20%. For
example, a 2.5 mm (0.1 in) range eddy current
transducer is generally considered effective from
0.5 to 3 mm (0.2 to 1.2 in) from the target surface.
 The targeted flat surface area should not be
smaller that the probe tip diameter. If the target
surface is smaller than 50% of the probe diameter,
output signals decrease substantially.
 Linear Displacement
Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The
driver creates an alternating current in the sensing coil in
the end of the probe. This creates an alternating magnetic
field with induces small currents in the target material;
these currents are called eddy currents. The eddy currents
create an opposing magnetic field which resists the field
being generated by the probe coil.
The interaction of the magnetic fields is
dependent on the distance between the
probe and the target. As the distance
changes, the electronics sense the
change in the field interaction and produce
a voltage output which is proportional to
the change in distance between the probe
and target.
 Eddy Current Transducer
The Eddy Current Transducer uses
the effect of eddy (circular) currents to
sense the proximity of non-magnetic but
conductive materials. A typical eddy
current transducer contains two coils: an
active coil (main coil) and a balance
coil. The active coil senses the
presence of a nearby conductive object,
and balance coil is used to balance the
output bridge circuit and for temperature
compensation.
 Deflection of a cantilever
A cantilevered beam can be used to illustrate
environmental effects on eddy current sensor performance,
sources of error, resolution, and versatility. The
demonstration hardware consists of a simple cantilever
beam constructed of rectangular aluminum conduit that has
been black-anodized
An eddy current sensor
under the free end of the
beam measures vertical
deflection:
 Applications…. position
 Eddy-Current sensors are useful in any application
requiring the measurement or monitoring of the position
of a conductive target, especially in a dirty environment.
Eddy-Current sensors are basically position
measuring devices. Their outputs always
indicate the size of the gap between the
sensor's probe and the target. When the probe
is stationary, any changes in the output are
directly interpreted as changes in position of
the target. This is useful in:
 Automation requiring precise location
 Machine tool monitoring
 Final assembly of precision equipment
such as disk drives
 Precision stage positioning
 Application ….Dynamic Motion
Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target,
such as a vibrating element, requires some form of
noncontact measurement. Eddy-Current sensors are
useful whether the environment is clean or dirty and the
motions are relatively small. Eddy-current sensors also
have high frequency response (up to 80kHz) to
accommodate high-speed motion.
 Drive shaft monitoring
 Vibration measurements
Application …. Thread detection
 The presence or absence of
threads in a tapped hole is a
major concern in the
automotive and other
industries. A simple untapped
hole stops production lines
and costs thousands of
dollars an hour. Eddy-Current
sensors, when inserted into a
metal hole will provide
different outputs depending
on the presence or absence
of threads.
Pros and Cons of E.C. Sensors
 Pros: -
 Non-contacting measurement.  -
 High resolution.  -
 High frequency response.   
 Cons:
 Effective distance is limited to close range.  
 The relationship between the distance and the impedance of the coil is
nonlinear and temperature dependent. Fortunately, a balance coil can
compensate for the temperature effect. As for the nonlinearity, careful
calibrations can ease its drawback.  
 Only works on conductive materials with sufficient thickness. It can not be used
for detecting the displacement of non-conductive materials or thin metalized
films. However, a piece of conductive material with sufficient thickness can be
mounted on non-conductive targets to overcome this drawback. A self-adhesive
aluminum-foil tape is commercially available for this purpose. However, this
practice is not always possible.  
 Calibration is generally required, since the shape and conductivity of the target
material can affect the sensor response.
 Piezoelectric sensor
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that A piezoelectric disk generates a
uses the piezoelectric effect to voltage when deformed (change in
measure pressure, acceleration, strain shape is greatly exaggerated 
 or force by converting them to an an 
electrical  signal.
Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials
(notably crystals and certain ceramics, including 
bone) to generate an electric field or 
electric potential[1] in response to applied
mechanical stress. The effect is closely related
to a change of polarization density within the
material's volume. If the material is not 
short-circuited, the applied stress induces a 
voltage across the material. The word is derived
from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to
squeeze or press
 Piezoelectric sensor

Metal disk with

piezoelectric disk
Tetragonal unit cell of
attached, used in a 
lead titanate
buzzer
 Piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric disk used as a Many rocket-propelled
guitar pickup grenades used piezoelectric
fuze. For example: RPG-7
[15]
 Piezoelectric Sensors
 The Piezoelectric effect is an effect in which
energy is converted between mechanical
and electrical forms. It was discovered in the
1880's by the Curie brothers. Specifically,
when a pressure (piezo means pressure in
Greek) is applied to a polarized crystal, the
resulting mechanical deformation results in
an electrical charge. Piezoelectric
microphones serve as a good example of
this phenomenon. Microphones turn an
acoustical pressure into a voltage.
Alternatively, when an electrical charge is
applied to a polarized crystal, the crystal
undergoes a mechanical deformation which
can in turn create an acoustical pressure. An
example of this can be seen in piezoelectric
speakers. (These are the cause of those
annoying system beeps that are all too
common in today's computers).
 Piezoelectric Sensors…
Permanent polarization as in the case of the
electrets is also observed in crystals. In these
structures, each cell of the crystal has an
electric dipole, and the cells are oriented such
that the electric dipoles are aligned. Again, this
results in excess surface charge which attracts
free charges from the surrounding atmosphere
making the crystal electrically neutral. If a
sufficient force is applied to the piezoelectric
crystal, a deformation will take place. This
deformation disrupts the orientation of the
electrical dipoles and creates a situation in
which the charge is not completely canceled.
This results in a temporary excess of surface
charge, which subsequently is manifested as a
voltage which is developed across the crystal.
 Piezoelectric Sensors…
 In order to utilize this physical principle to make a
sensor to measure force, we must be able to measure
the surface charge on the crystal. Figure shows a
common method of using a piezoelectric crystal to
make a force sensor. Two metal plates are used to
sandwich the crystal making a capacitor. As mentioned
previously, an external force cause a deformation of the
crystal results in a charge which is a function of the
applied force. In its operating region, a greater force will
result in more surface charge. This charge results in a
voltage , where Qf is the charge resulting from a
force f, and C is the capacitance of the device
 Piezoelectric Sensors…
 In the manner described above,
piezoelectric crystals act as
transducers which turn force, or
mechanical stress into electrical
charge which in turn can be
converted into a voltage.
Alternatively, if one was to apply a
voltage to the plates of the system
described above, the resultant
electric field would cause the
internal electric dipoles to re-align
which would cause a deformation
of the material. An example of this
is the fact that piezoelectric
transducers find use both as
speakers (voltage to mechanical)
and microphones (mechanical to
electrical).
 Piezoelectric Sensors
A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical
construction and other non-idealities.[3] The inductance Lm is due to
the seismic mass and inertia of the sensor itself. 
Ce is inversely proportional to the Schematic symbol and
mechanical elasticity of the electronic model of a
sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance piezoelectric senso
of the transducer, resulting from an inertial
mass of infinite size.[3] Ri is the insulation 
leakage resistance of the transducer
element. If the sensor is connected to a 
load resistance, this also acts in parallel
with the insulation resistance, both
increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency
 Piezoelectric Sensors
Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor;
output voltage vs applied force