BDA10403

ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY

Mohd Hilmi Othman

 BDA10403:ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

• Introduction
• Superposition
• Source transformations
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Maximum power transfer
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Introduction
Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s
Thevenin’s theorem
theorem
Superposition
Norton
Norton theorem
theorem
Source transformation
Max. power transfer
transfer

A large complex circuits Simplify

Simplify circuit
circuit analysis
analysis
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Introduction
Independent Source:
• An ideal independent source is an active element that
provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit variables.

Symbols for independent voltage sources: Symbol for independent

(a)used for constant or time-varying voltage, current source.
(b)used for constant voltage (dc).
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Introduction
Dependent Source:
• An ideal dependent source is an active element in which the
source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

Symbols for a) dependent voltage sources b) dependent

 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Introduction
Independent Source Dependent Source
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
• The superposition principle states that the voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
• Turn off, killed, inactive source:
– independent voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
– independent current source: 0 A (open circuit)
• Dependent sources are left intact.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Steps to apply superposition principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find
the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
How to turn off independent sources??
1. Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make it
equal to zero voltage
2. Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it
equal to zero current

Important notes…
• Superposition involves more work but simpler circuits.
• Superposition is not applicable to the effect on power.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Example 1:
Use the superposition theorem to find the “V” in the circuit
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 1 :

Since there are two independent sources, let V  V1  V2

Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it equal to
zero current.

Use voltage division rule, to get

4
V1  (6)  2V
48
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 1 : (Continue)

Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make it equal to

zero voltage. Use Current Division Rule, to get
8
i3  (3)  2A
48
v2  4i3  8V
v  v1  v2  2  8  10V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Example 2:
Use the superposition theorem to find the current and voltage drop
in the circuit.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Since we have two sources of power in this circuit, we will have to
calculate two sets of values for voltage drops and/or currents, one
for the circuit with only the 28-volt battery in effect….
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
. . . and one for the circuit with only the 7-volt battery in effect:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Analysing the circuit with only the 28-volt battery, we obtain the
following values for voltage and current:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Analysing the circuit with only the 28-volt battery, we obtain the
following values for voltage and current:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Analysing the circuit with only the 7-volt battery, we obtain the
following values for voltage and current:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Analysing the circuit with only the 7-volt battery, we obtain the
following values for voltage and current:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
When superimposing these values of voltage and current, we have
to be very careful to consider polarity (of the voltage drop) and
direction (of the current flow), as the values have to be added
algebraically.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Applying these superimposed voltage figures to the circuit, the end
result looks something like this:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Currents add up algebraically as well and can either be
superimposed as done with the resistor voltage drops or simply
calculated from the final voltage drops and respective resistances
(I=E/R). Either way, the answers will be the same. Here I will show
the superposition method applied to current:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Superposition
Solution for Example 2:
Applying these superimposed current figures to the circuit, the end
result looks something like this:
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source
vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice versa.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation

vs
vs  is R or is 
R
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation

30 V
10 Ω
3A 10 Ω

vs
vs  is R or is   

R
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Equivalent Circuits
i i

+ +
v v

- -
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Equivalent Circuits
i

v  iR  vs
v vs
vs
v
i 
-is R R
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Important notes…
• Arrow of the current source
positive terminal of voltage source
• Impossible source Transformation
– ideal voltage source (R = 0)
– ideal current source (R=)
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Example for Source Transformation
• Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in the figure.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Solution
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Source Transformation
Solution (continue)
Use current division in Figure(c)

2
i (2)  0.4A
28

vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a
linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh where
VTh is the open circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input
or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent
source are turn off.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
i
Property of Linear Circuits

i Slope=1/Rth
+ v
Any two-terminal v Vth
Linear Circuits
- Isc
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem

• The Thevenin’s resistance may be negative, indicating that the

circuit has ability to provide power.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage
• Equivalent circuit: Same voltage-current relation at the terminals,
whereby ,
• Vth = Voc : Open circuit voltage at a-b
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
How to Find Thevenin’s Resistance
• Rth = Rin
• Input- Resistance of dead circuit at a-b
• Open Circuit at a-b
• Turn off all independent sources
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
CASE 1
• If the network has no dependent sources,
• Turn off all independent source.
• RTH :can be obtained via simplification of either parallel or
series connection seen from a-b
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
CASE 2
• If the network has  independent and dependent sources. 
• Find the short circuit current, Isc (current through short
circuit at terminals). 
• RTH : can be obtained by:
  𝑉 𝑜𝑐
𝑅 𝑇𝐻=
𝐼 𝑠𝑐
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
CASE 3
• If the network has dependent
sources
• Turn off all independent sources.
• Apply a voltage source vo at a-b
• Alternatively, apply a current
source io at a-b
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Simplified circuit

VTh
IL 
RTh  RL
Voltage divider

RL
VL  RL I L  VTh
RTh  RL
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Example: Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown in a figure, to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the
current through RL = 6, 16, and 36 .
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 1- no dependent sources

Find Rth Find Vth

 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Find Rth

RTh : 32V voltagesource  short

2A current source  open

4  12
RTh  4 || 12  1   1  4
16
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Find Vth
 32  4i1  12(i1  i2 )  0 , i2  2A
(1) By using Mesh Analysis i1  0.5A
VTh  12(i1  i2 )  12(0.5  2.0)  30V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Find Vth
(32  VTh ) / 4  2  VTh / 12
(2) By using Nodal Analysis
VTh  30V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: To get iL

VTh 30
iL  
RTh  RL 4  RL

RL  6  I L  30 / 10  3A
RL  16  I L  30 / 20  1.5A
RL  36I L  30 / 40  0.75A
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Example: Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in figure at
terminals a-b.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

independent source  0
dependent source  intact
vo 1
vo  1V, RTh  
io io

To find RTH : Refer to Fig (a)

 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source
Using Mesh Analysis, For Loop 1
 2v x  2(i1  i2 )  0 or v x  i1  i2
But look at Loop 2,
-4i2 = vx = i1-i2

-4i2 = i1-i2

Therefore, i1=-3 i2
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

Mesh Analysis For Loop 2 and 3,

4i2  2(i2  i1 )  6(i2  i3 )  0

6(i3  i2 )  2i3  1  0
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

Solving previous equation,

i3  1 / 6A.
1
But io  i3  A
6
1V
 RTh   6
io
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

Find Vth, by using Mesh Analysis

2

For the first loop,

i1  5 1 3

 2vthe
For x second )  0  v x  i3  i2
2(i3  i2loop
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

Find Vth, by using Mesh Analysis

2

For the third loop,

1 3
4(i2-i1)+2(i2-i3)+6i2=0
12i2  4i1  2i3  0
But 4(i1  i2 )  v x i2  10 / 3.
VTh  voc  6i2  20V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Solution: Case 2- Independent + dependent source

Final answer (Thevenin circuit)

 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 5
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in Figure (a)
• This case is circuit with dependent source only.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 5 (solution) circuit with dependent source only.

vo
VTh  0 RTh 
io

By using Nodal Analysis

io  ix  2ix  vo / 4
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Example 5 (solution) circuit with dependent source only.

But 0  vo vo
ix  
2 2
vo vo vo vo
io  ix       or vo  4io
4 2 4 4
vo
Thus RTh   4 : Supplying power
io
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s
Theorem

1. Open the load resistor.

2. Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the
Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3. Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the
Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s
Theorem

5. Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in

Step (2) as voltage Source and measured open circuit resistance
(RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and connect the load
resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is the
Equivalent Thevenin Circuit of that Linear Electric Network or
Complex circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by
Thevenin’s Theorem.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s
Theorem

6. Now find the Total current flowing through Load resistor by

using the Ohm’s Law :

VTh
IL 
RTh  RL
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a
linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN where IN is
the short-circuit current through
the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent
source are turn off.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
i

Slope=1/RN
v
Vth
-iN
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
How to Find Norton Current
• Thevenin and Norton resistances
are equal:
RN  RTh
• Short circuit current from a to b :
VTh
I N  isc 
RTh
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit :
• The open circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b
• The short circuit current isc at terminals a and b
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b
when all independent source are turn off.

VTh  voc VTh

RTh   RN
IN  isc RTh
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in the figure.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
To find RN

RN  5 || (8  4  8)
20  5
 5 || 20   4
25
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
VTh : open  circuit voltage across terminals a and b

VTh
IN 
RTh

Mesh analysis :
i 3  2 A, 25i 4  4i 3  12  0
 i 4  0.8A
 voc  VTh  5i 4  4V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
Hence,

VTh
IN   4 / 4  1A
RTh
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in the figure
at terminals a-b.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
To find RN
 4 resistor shorted
5 || vo || 2ix : Parallel
Hence, ix  vo / 5  1 / 5  0.2
vo 1
 RN    5
io 0.2
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
To find I N

 4 ||10v || 5 || 2ix : Parallel

10  0
ix   2.5A,
4
10
isc  ix  2 ix   2(2.5)  7 A
5
 I N  7A
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen the load (RL = RTH).
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

2
 VTH 
p  i RL  
2
 RL
 RTH  RL 
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

dp  ( R  R ) 2
 2 RL ( RTH  RL ) 
 VTH 
2 TH L

dRL  ( R TH  RL ) 4

2  ( RTH  RL  2 RL ) 
 VTH  ( R  R )3   0
 TH L 
0  ( RTH  RL  2 RL )  ( RTH  RL )
RL  RTH
2
VTH
pmax 
4 RTH
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
circuit of the figure. Find the maximum power.
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

Solution
By using Mesh Analysis.. 12  18i1  12i2 , i2  2 A
 15i2  12i1  VTH  0  VTH  22V
 Chapter 4 : Circuit Theorems

Maximum Power Transfer

Solution
6  12
RTH  2  3  6 12  5   9
18
RL  RTH  9
2
VTH 22 2
pmax    13.44W
4 RL 49