Gas hormone

Fruit ripening
 Discovery -
Ethylene
Dimitry Neljubow trying to grow peas in the
laboratory and noticed that they did not
grow normally. They were very short, the
stems were large in diameter, and bent
sideways.
This was later
laboratory wascalled
using the triple
coal gas response of
(illuminating
peas.
gas) for lamp light. The active ingredient in
the air that caused this growth response was
ethylene, a byproduct of coal gas
combustion.
 Chemical Nature
Ethylene (C2H4) with a molecule weight of 28 is a
well known and simplest gas.

Ethylene is flammable and highly volatile

substance that readily undergoes oxidation to
produce ethylene oxide.

It is colourless, lighter than air at room temp,

and under physiological conditions and is
sparingly soluble in water.
 In many plant tissues, ethylene can be fully
oxidised to CO2 through ethylene oxide.
•Ethylene is readily absorbed by potassium
permanganate (KMnO4).

•The latter is frequently used to remove excess ethylene

from the storage chambers.
 OCCURRENCE, TRANSPORT - ETHYLENE
 Ethylene is produced by all groups of plants including
bacteria, fungi, some blue green algae, bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
 In higher plants, ethylene can easily synthesized in all
plant organs such as roots, stems, leaves, tubers, bulbs,
fruits and seeds.
 It is highest in senescing tissues and ripening fruits.
 Due to its hydrophobic nature, ethylene can easily pass
through plasmamembrane into the cell, easily diffuse
within the plant or plant parts through inter cellular
spaces.
 MODE OF ACTION
 Ethylene is considered to dissolve in cell
membranes altering their permeability.

 Ethylene : regulating auxin metabolism

 Decreased synthesis
 Decreased transport Auxin
 Increased binding

 Ethylene, inhibit transport of auxin from the

site of production to the site of action
 Ethylene is known to be synthesized in plant
tissues from the amino acid Methionine.

 A nonprotein amino acid, 1-amino Cyclopropane

1-carboxylic acid (ACC) is an important
intermediate ethylene biosynthesis.
 Precursor of ethylene biosynthesis –
Methionine

 The mechanism by which ethylene is produced

from methionine is a 3 step process.
 0
SAM synthetase

Methionine adenosyl transferas

ATP
ADP + Pi
ADP + Pi

S-adenosyl methionine
MTA
Fe and Ascorbate Methylthioadenosine

EFE: Ethyene Forming

Enzyme
1aminocyclopropane 1 carboxylic acid
First Step:

 ATP is an essential component in the synthesis of

ethylene from Methionine.

 Methionine by ATP to form S-adenosyl methionine

(SAM).

 This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme SAM

synthetase (Methionine adenosyl transferase).

Second Step:

 SAM is cleaved to form 1aminocyclopropane 1

carboxylic acid (ACC) and 5′methylthioadenosine
(MTA) by the enzyme ACC synthase.
• Third Step:

In the third and last step of ethylene

biosynthesis:

ACC is oxidised by the enzyme ACC oxidase

(Ethylene Forming Enzyme i.e., EFE) to form
Ethylene.
HCN, CO2 and H2O are eliminated.

The enzyme ACC oxidase requires ferrous iron

(Fe ) and ascorbate as cofactors.
Methylthioadenosine
 Inhibitors of

S-adenosyl methionine

Inhibits ethylene synthesis:

EFE: Ethyene Forming Enzyme AOA, AVG
Inhibits ethylene synthesis:

CO2+
1 aminocyclopropanelcarboxylic acid
(ACC)

Amino ethoxy vinyl glycine (AVG), and Amino oxy acetic acid (AOA)
 Functions of Ethylene

Stimulates senescence.
Stimulates fruit ripening.
Stimulates leaf and fruit abscission.
Induction of femaleness in dioecious flowers.
Triple response
Stimulates the release of dormancy.
Plumular hook formation
Leaf epinasty
Stimulates flowering
Continues flow of latex in rubber plans
The flowers of orchids and roses the most
sensitive to externally applied ethylene.
Senescence
 Flowering Mango, Pine apple

Ethylene is used commercially to synchronize flowering and fruit

set in pineapple.

Ethylene promotes
formation of female
flowers in cucurbits.
TRIPLETriple response
RESPONSE
De-greening agent Fruit ripening
 CLIMATRIC & NON CLIMATRIC FRUITS
A rapid rise in respiration rate just before ripening.
This rapid increase is called the climacteric fruits.

Climacteric fruits Non climacteric fruits

Apple BELL PEPPER, GRAPES
Avocado
Banana CHERRY
Cantaloupe
Cherimoya ORANGE, LEMON, CITRUS
Fig
Mango PINE APPLE
Olive
Peach STRAWBERRY, CASHEW
Pear
Persimmon WATERMELON, KINNOW, POMEGRANATE
Plum
Tomato
 
                   
                                                                                                                                                                                               

COMMENTS
Climacteric fruits Non-Climacteric fruits
Climacteric fruits are those fruits, which Non-Climacteric fruits are those fruit,
continue to ripen after harvesting. which do not ripen further after harvest.
Climacteric fruits emit a large amount of Non-Climacteric fruits emit very fewer
ethylene gas due to which climacteric amount of ethylene gas due to which
fruits continue to ripen even after non-climacteric fruits do not continue to
harvesting. ripen even after harvesting.
These fruits are harvested when they These fruits are harvested when they
are hard and green but the aim is too are fully matured and ripened.
ripe these fruits near consumption
areas.
A small dose of ethylene is used to These fruits not respond much more to
induce ripening process under controlled ethylene.
conditions of temperature and humidity.
Examples of climacteric fruits – Some examples of Non-climacteric fruits
Apple, banana, mango, papaya, pear, – Lemon, grapes, orange, cherries,
apricot, peach, plum, avocado, guava, raspberries, strawberries, and cashews,
passion fruit, blueberry, cantaloupe, etc. litchi, pineapple, watermelon,
pomegranate, etc.
 Plumular Hook formation

Etiolated dicot seedlings are usually

characterized by a pronounced hook located
just behind the shoot apex
Hook shape facilitates penetration of the
seedling through soil, protecting the tender
apical meristem.
 Leaf EpinastyBending of leaves
ration of Auxin to upper side of the petio

re Auxin in upper side due to C2H4

ore cell elongation in the upper side

More growth on upper side

Bendi Drooping of leaf

ng
Leaf Epinasty
 JASMONATES/ JA
• JASMONATE is a 12-C unsaturated fatty acid
with a cyclopentane ring structure and a keto
group that occurs along with methyl esters,
(MEJA ) methyl jasmonate.
 JA plays a role in the formation of flowers, fruit
and seed.
 It is suggested by the relatively high levels of
this compound in developing plant reproductive
tissues.
 Strongly promote senescence of leaves.
 Signaling agent in plant defense responses.
 A role in insect and disease resistance of plant.
Discovery:
 First BR isolated and discovered in rape
(Brassica napus) pollen grains.

 Immature seeds and pollen contain the

highest concentrations of brassinosteroids.

 When applied exogenously to intact plants

at micromaolar or nanomolar / very low
concentrations .
 Brassinolide Structure
Common well known biologically active BRs in plants
is Brassinolide (BL)
BL, Chemically similar to insect moulting hormone
–ecdysones.
 Physiological responses-BRs
• Stimulate seed germination
• Promote pollen tube growth
• Promote Cell elongation and cell division in
stem
• Expression of light regulated genes
• Delay leaf abscission
• Increase flowering fruit set and yield
• Enhance gravitropism
• Resemble like : AUXINS
 Use of BRs in Agriculture/Horticulture

 Foliar spray of 0.3 ppm BRs increases yield in rice at

panicle initiation and flowering stage.

Increase tomato fruit set and potato tuber growth gives

resistance against infections.

Pretreatment of woody cuttings (APPLE) with BRs
enhance rooting response.
Increase yield of bean plants upto 45%.
 Roles of SA
When a plant survives infection by a pathogen at one site, it often develops increased
resistance to subsequent attacks at sites throughout the plant and enjoys protection
against a wide range of pathogenic species. This phenomenon, called systemic acquired
resistance (SAR)
TRAUMATIC ACID
GROWTH RETARDANTS
 The term growth retardant refer to the chemicals that slow
down cell division and cell elongation of shoot tissue and
regulate plant height physiologically without formative
effects.
 They do not occur naturally in plants.

Example:
 AMO 1618 ,

 CCC (Chloro choline chloride) (2-Chloroethyl – trimethyl

ammonium chloride)
 Chlormequat chloride ( Cycocel)

 Alar or B9

 Paclobutrazol

 Mepiquat chloride
 Growth inhibitors suppress the growth of
plants.
 ABA and ethylene are called as natural growth
inhibitors.
 They bring about certain formative changes in
plants.
 There are synthetic growth inhibitors also.

Examples:
 Malichydrazide (MH):
 2,3,5-T or Triiodo benzoic acid (TIBA)
 Growth Inhibitor Growth Retardant
The chemicals which inhibit or Chemicals retard cell-division and cell
retard physiological or biochemical elongation in shoot tissues and thus
processes in plants. regulate the plant height.
It causes malformation of leaves and There is no malformation.
stems
It completely suppresses the plant Does not completely suppress.
growth
It causes yellowing and abscission It intensifies the green colour of leaves.
of leaves
It affects the vigour and rate of There is no such effect.
organ development
Malic Hydrazide (MH), ABA Cycocel , Phosphon D, Chlormequant,
Amo-1618 etc.
It may be antigibberellin, antiauxin, It is mainly antigibberellin.
antigermination
COMMERCIAL APPLICATION OF PLANT
GROWTH REGULATORS IN AGRICULTURE
AND HORTICULTURE
AUXINS
a)IBA (@250 ppm) and NAA were found to increase
root development in the propagation of stem
cuttings.

b) 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) stimulates

excessive uncontrolled growth in broad leaf plants for
which it is used as a herbicide.

c) Application of NAA reduces flower and fruit drop in

Mango.

d) NAA application brings uniform flowering and fruit set

by inducing ethylene formation in Pineapple.

e) NAA application @ 10-100 ppm during fruit setting

period controls boll shedding in cotton crop.
a) GA is used extensively on seedless grape varieties to increase the size and quality of
the fruit. Pre- bloom spray of 20 ppm induces rachis of the fruit cluster to elongate.

b) GA is used to increase the yield of barley malt and to decrease the time required for
this process to occur. Application of GA to germinating barley supplements the
endogenous content of this hormone and accelerates the production and release
of hydrolytic enzymes. They can easily degrade the stored carbohydrates.

c) Foliar spray of GA3, at 100 ppm during panicle initiation stage enhances the panicle
exertion and increases seed weight and yield in hybrid rice.

d) GA has also has been used to control flower sex expression in cucumbers and squash.
GA application tends to promote maleness in these plants.

e) Gibberellic acid is also applied to citrus crops, though the actual use depends on the
particular crop. For example GA3 is sprayed onto oranges and Manderines to
delay or prevent rind-aging, so that fruit can be harvested later without
adverse effects on rind quality and appearance. For lemons and limes, GA3
synchronizes ripening and enhances fruit size.
f) Gibberellic acid is used extensively to increase the sucrose yield of sugarcane.
Sugarcane, a normally fast-growing C4 member of the Poaceae (grass) family, is
sensitive to cooler winter temperatures, which reduce internode elongation and
subsequent sucrose yield. The adverse effects of cooler temperatures can be
counteracted by the application of GA3.
Ethylene -high diffusion rate, ethylene is very difficult to
apply in the field as a gas, but this limitation can be over
come if an ethylene releasing compound is used. The most
widely used such compound is ethephon or 2- chloro ethyl
phosphonic acid (CEPA) ( trade name: ethrel).

Ethrel @ 100-250 ppm sprayed at 2-3 leaf stage induce

femaleness in cucumber and melons.

It helps in degreening of citrus and banana which

increases its market acceptability.

Storage facilities developed to inhibit the ethylene

production and promote preservation of fruits have a
controlled atmosphere of low 02 concentration and low
temperature that inhibits ethylene biosynthesis.
AMO 1618 (a quaternary ammonium salt) is used in the
cultivation of ornamental plants and causes a bushy
shape and a sturdy growth of the treated plants.

Paclobutrazol : Reduces the problem of biennial

bearing in Mango
Mepiquat chloride, Chlormequat chloride ( Cycocel) :
used in ornamental plants for shorter internodes and
thicker stems (used in poinsettias), it also prevents
lodging and increases tillering in cereals.

Malichydrazide (MH): prevents premature sprouting of

onion and potato.
2,3,5-T or Triiodo benzoic acid (TIBA): Increases
flowering in chrysanthemum.