Unit 2: Sources of Data

Collection
 Primary and Secondary data
Primary Data : It is the first hand data collected by the
researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research
problem. The authenticity of data is relatively high. Primary
Data is used when secondary data are
Unavailable
Inappropriate
Data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of
addressing the research problem.

Secondary Data : Secondary data is the data that have

been already collected by and readily available from other
sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable
than the primary data. This data is also used when primary
data cannot be obtained at all.
This data is already collected for some other purpose than the
problem at hand.
Advantages of Secondary Data

It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.

It is time saving.
It helps to make primary data collection more
specific since with the help of secondary data,
we are able to make out what are the gaps
and deficiencies and what additional
information needs to be collected.
It helps to improve the understanding of the
problem.
It provides a basis for comparison for the data
that is collected by the researcher.
 Secondar
y data

External Internal

Publish Syndica Read Require

ed ted Computeri y to s
materi service zed use further
als s database processi
ng
 1. External data
External Sources are sources which are
outside the company in a larger
environment. Collection of external data
is more difficult because the data have
much greater variety and the sources
are much more numerous.
Three types of external
1.1 Published data
1.2 Computerized data
1.3 Syndicated data
 Published
secondary
data

General Govt.
business sources
sources

census
guides

Other govt
directories publication

indexes

Statistical
data
1.1 Published Data
Government Publications- Government sources provide an extremely
rich pool of data for the researchers. In addition, many of these data are
available free of cost on internet websites. There are number of
government agencies generating data. These are:
Registrar General of India- It is an office which generate demographic data. It
includes details of gender, age, occupation etc.
Central Statistical Organization- This organization publishes the national
accounts statistics. It contains estimates of national income for several years,
growth rate, and rate of major economic activities. Annual survey of Industries is
also published by the CSO. It gives information about the total number of workers
employed, production units, material used and value added by the manufacturer.
Director General of Commercial Intelligence- This office operates from
Kolkata. It gives information about foreign trade i.e. import and export. These
figures are provided region-wise and country-wise.
Ministry of Commerce and Industries- This ministry through the office of
economic advisor provides information on wholesale price index. These indices
may be related to a number of sectors like food, fuel, power, food grains etc. It
also generates All India Consumer Price Index numbers for industrial workers,
urban, non manual employees and cultural labourers.
Planning Commission- It provides the basic statistics of Indian Economy.
Reserve Bank of India- This provides information on Banking Savings and
investment. RBI also prepares currency and finance reports.
 Labour Bureau- It provides information on skilled, unskilled, white collared
jobs etc.
National Sample Survey- This is done by the Ministry of Planning and it
provides social, economic, demographic, industrial and agricultural statistics.
Department of Economic Affairs- It conducts economic survey and it also
generates information on income, consumption, expenditure, investment,
savings and foreign trade.
State Statistical Abstract- This gives information on various types of
activities related to the state like - commercial activities, education,
occupation etc

Non Government Publications- These includes publications of

various industrial and trade associations, such as
The Indian Cotton Mill Association
Various chambers of commerce
The Bombay Stock Exchange (it publishes a directory containing financial
accounts, key profitability and other relevant matter)
Various Associations of Press Media.
Export Promotion Council.
Confederation of Indian Industries ( CII )
Small Industries Development Board of India
Different Mills like - Woolen mills, Textile mills etc
 Computerized database

Internet/ Online Offline

1.2 Computerized
database
It consist of information that has been made
available in computer-readable form for
electronic distribution.

Online
Databases, stored in computers, which requires a
telecommunications network to access.
Offline database
Databases that are available on pen –drive , Hard
disk , CD etc are offline databases.
1.3 Syndicated services
These services are provided by certain
organizations which collect and tabulate
the marketing information on a regular
basis for a number of clients who are the
subscribers to these services. So the
services are designed in such a way that
the information suits the subscriber. These
services are useful in television viewing,
movement of consumer goods etc. These
syndicate services provide information data
from both household as well as institution
 Importance and disadvantages of
Syndicated Services.
Importance of Syndicate Services
Syndicate services are becoming popular since
the constraints of decision making are
changing and we need more of specific
decision-making in the light of changing
environment. Also Syndicate services are able
to provide information to the industries at a low
unit cost.

Disadvantages of Syndicate Services

The information provided is not exclusive. A
number of research agencies provide
2. Secondary Data- Internal data
Internal data is of two types:
2.1 Ready to use-
sales, cost, units produced etc

2.2 Data that requires further

processing
sales by product line, sales by
geographical region etc
 Secondary Data- Internal Data
Internal secondary data may be obtained with less time,
effort and money than the external secondary data. In
addition, they may also be more pertinent to the situation at
hand since they are from within the organization. The
internal sources include
Accounting resources- This gives so much information
which can be used by the marketing researcher. They give
information about internal factors.
Sales Force Report- It gives information about the sale of
a product. The information provided is of outside the
organization.
Internal Experts- These are people who are heading the
various departments. They can give an idea of how a
particular thing is working
Miscellaneous Reports- These are what information you
are getting from operational reports.
Primary
Data
 Primary Data

Quantitative

Survey
Descriptive

Observation
Qualitative
Causal

Experiments
Types of Primary Data
Qualitative
An unstructured, exploratory research
methodology based on small samples that
provides insights and understanding of the
problem setting.

Quantitative
A research methodology that seeks to
quantify the data and typically applies some
form of statistical analysis.
Qualitative
Data
Qualitative Data
Qualitative Research is generally undertaken
to develop an initial understanding of the
problem.
It is non statistical in nature.
 It uses an inductive method, that is, data
relevant to some topics are collected and
grouped into appropriate meaningful
categories.
The explanations are emerged from the data
itself. It is used in exploratory research design
and descriptive research also.
Qualitative data comes into a variety of forms
 Qualitative

Direct Indirect

Focus group
Projective Techniques

In Depth interview
Association Completion Construction Expressive
 Types of Qualitative
Research
Direct
One type of qualitative research in which the
purpose of the project are disclosed to the
respondent or are obvious, given the nature of
the interview:-
Focus Groups
Depth Interview
Case Study

Indirect
A type of qualitative research in which the
purposes of the project are not disclosed to the
respondents.
 Qualitative
Techniques-
Direct Method
 1. Focus Group Interview
Focus groups are also known as group interviews or
group discussions. They are used to understand
the attitude or behavior of the audience.
Six to twelve individuals are selected and either
one or two moderators (those who lead the
discussions) are selected. If there are two moderators,
they will adopt opposite positions.
It is the moderator who introduces the topic.
Discussion is controlled through these
moderators.
The group is watched from adjacent rooms. There are
various devices which are used to record these
discussions
Objectives of Focus Group

To gather primary information for

research project;
To help developing questionnaires in
terms of survey research;
To understand reason behind a
particular phenomenon:
To see how people interpret certain
phenomenon;
To test primarily ideas or plan
 Advantages of Focus Group

It is used to collect primary information and

therefore it can conduct a pilot study also.
Relative cost is not much.
It can be conducted quickly.
It has flexibility.
Moderator can detect the opinion and
certificates of those who cannot speak well
by facial expression and other non verbal
behavior.
We can get the questionnaire filled up either
before or after the discussion.
Disadvantages of Focus Group
It is inappropriate for gathering
quantitative data.
Self appointed group leader may impose
his /her opinion on other members.
Moderators can restrict people.
It depends heavily on skills of moderator.
Respondents in the focus group may or
may not represent the population from
which they are drawn.
Recording equipments are likely to restrict
respondents. Location of recording
equipment is very important
 2. In depth Interview
They generally use small samples and also conduct direct
one to one personal interviews.
 A detailed background is provided by the respondents
and elaborate data concerning the respondent’s opinions,
values, motivation, expression, feeling etc are obtained.
Even their non-verbal expressions are observed.
 They take long time, therefore lengthy observations are
involved.
These are conducted to customize individual responses.
The questions will depend on what kind of answers is
given. Even interview climate influences the respondents.
The success of interviews depends on the rapport of the
interviewers established with the respondents
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of In Depth Interview
Lot of detail is provided.
Information obtained is comparatively more accurate.
Personal or intimate topic can also be discussed since
the personal rapport is established between the
respondent and the interviewer
Disadvantages of In Depth Interview
It is difficult to generalize since the interviewers are
non-standardized
Since the success depends on the interviewer, there
are chances of bias.
Data analysis takes a lot of time.
 3. Case Study
Individual cases are taken and a detailed study of each
case is done.

Advantages of Case Study

Accurate data is provided
There is detailed analysis

Disadvantages of Case Study

It is difficult to generalize.
It consumes lot of time.
Confidential and sensitive information may not be
given.
 Qualitative
Techniques- In
Direct Methods
 Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and
unstructured methods of investigation which
have been developed by the psychologists and
use projection of respondents for inferring about
underline motives, urges or intentions which
cannot be secure through direct questioning as
the respondent either resists to reveal them or
is unable to figure out himself.
These techniques are useful in giving
respondents opportunities to express their
attitudes without personal embarrassment.
These techniques help the respondents to
 1. Association Technique
A type of PT in which the respondent is presented with a stimulus
and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind.

Word Association
A PT in which respondent is presented with a list of words, one at a
time. After each word, they are asked to give the first word that
comes to mind. The association can take the shape of a picture or
a word.
There can be many interpretations of the same thing.
The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner
feeling of the respondents.
The frequency with which any word is given a response and the
amount of time that elapses before the response is given are
important for the researcher.
For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word “ Fair”
with “Complexion
 2. Completion Technique
A Projective Technique that requires the
respondent to complete an incomplete
stimulus situation.

2.1 Sentence Completion

A Projective Technique in which respondents are
presented with a number of incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them.
2.2 Story Completion
A PT in which a respondent is provided with part
of a story and required to give the conclusion.
 3. Construction Technique
A Projective Technique in which the
respondent is required to construct a
response in the form of a story, dialogue
or description.

Picture response technique

A PT in which the respondent is shown a
picture and asked to tell a story
describing it.
4. Expressive technique
PT in which the respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked
to relate the feeling and attitudes of other
people to the situation.

Role play
Respondents are asked to assume the
behavior of someone else.
Quantitative
Data
 Quantitative Data

Quantitative Research quantifies the data and

generalizes the results from the sample to the
population. Here researcher typically applies
some form of statistical analysis.
In Quantitative Research, data can be
collected by two methods:-
Survey Method
Observation Method
Experiments
 Descriptive Research
Survey Method
A structured questionnaire given to a sample
of a population and designed to elicit
specific information from the respondents.

Observation Method
The recording of behavioral patterns of
people, objects, and events in a systematic
manner to obtain information about the
phenomenon of interest.
 Survey
This is a very commonly used method of collecting
primary data.
This is generally a non disguised approach.
Here information are collected through a set of
questionnaire.
 A questionnaire is a document prepared by the
investigator containing a set of questions. These
questions relate to the problem of enquiry directly or
indirectly.
The questionnaire should carry a polite note explaining
the aims and objective of the enquiry, definition of
various terms and concepts used there.
 Success of this method greatly depends upon the way in
which the questionnaire is drafted. So the investigator
must be very careful while framing the questions.
 Survey

Teleph Perso Electr

Mail
onic nal onic
 Telephonic

Traditional Computer Assisted

 Telephonic Interviewing
Telephone Interviewing stands out as the best method for
gathering quickly needed information. Responses are collected
from the respondents by the researcher on telephone.

Type of Telephonic Interview

Traditional telephone
It involves phoning a sample of respondents and asking
them a series of questions.

Computer assisted telephone

It uses a computerized questionnaire administered to
respondents over the telephone. The interviewer records
the respondent’s answer directly into the computer’s
memory bank.
Telephonic Interviewing
Advantages of Telephonic Interview
It is very fast method of data collection.
It has the advantage over “Mail Questionnaire” of permitting the
interviewer to talk to one or more persons and to clarifying his
questions if they are not understood.
Response rate of telephone interviewing seems to be a little better
than mail questionnaires
The quality of information is better
It is less costly method and there are less administration problems

Disadvantages of Telephonic Interview

They cant handle interview which need props
It cant handle unstructured interview
It cant be used for those questions which requires long descriptive
answers
Respondents cannot be observed
People are reluctant to disclose personal information on telephone
People who don’t have telephone facility cannot be approached
 Personal

Computer
At home Mall Intercept
Assisted
 Personal Interviews
This is an direct method of collecting primary
data.
Here information is collected directly from the source but
by interviewing persons closely related with the problem.
Here the investigator prepares 'a small list of questions
relating to the enquiry. The answers (information) are
collected by interviewing persons
The accuracy of the information largely depends upon
the integrity of the investigator.
It is desirable that the investigator should be experienced
and capable enough to inspire and create confidence in
the informant to collect accurate data.
Types of Personal Interviews

In home interviews

Respondents are interviewed face to face in
their homes.
Mall intercept interviews
Respondents are intercepted while they are
shopping in malls.
Computer assisted
interviews
Respondents sits in front of a computer terminal
 Personal Interviews
Advantages of Personal Interview
The person interviewed can ask more questions and can supplement
the interview with personal observation.
They are more flexible. Order of questions can be changed
Knowledge of past and future is possible.
In-depth research is possible.
Verification of data from other sources is possible.
The information obtained is very reliable and dependable and helps in
establishing cause and effect relationship very early.
Disadvantages of Personal Interview
It requires much more technical and administrative planning and
supervision
It is more expensive
It is time consuming
The accuracy of data is influenced by the interviewer
A number of call banks may be required
Some people are not approachable
 Mail

One Time Mail Mail Panel

Mail Survey
Questionnaires are send to the
respondents, they fill it up and send it
back.

Mail interview
In the traditional mail interview,
questionnaires are mailed to
preselected potential respondents.
Mail panel
Mail Survey
Advantages of Mail Survey
It can reach all types of people.
Response rate can be improved by offering
certain incentives.

Disadvantages of Mail Survey

It can not be used for unstructured study.
It is costly.
It requires established mailing list.
It is time consuming.
There is problem in case of complex questions
 Electronic

E- mail Internet
 Electronic Interviewing
Electronic interviewing is a process of recognizing
and noting people, objects, occurrences rather
than asking for information.
E –mail
A list of e-mail addresses is obtained and the survey is
written within the body of the e-mail message.
Respondents type the answers to either closed ended
or open ended questions at designated places.
Internet interviews
Questionnaire are posted on the website. Respondents
are asked to go to a particular web location to
complete survey.
Electronic Interviewing
Advantages of Electronic Interview
There is no relying on willingness or ability of
respondent.
The data is more accurate and objective.
Disadvantages of Electronic Interview
Attitudes can not be observed.
Those events which are of long duration can not
be observed.
There is observer bias. It is not purely objective.
If the respondents know that they are being
observed, their response can be biased.
It is a costly method
Observation Method
Observation method is a method under
which data from the field is collected with
the help of observation by the observer or
by personally going to the field.
 In the words of P.V. Young, “Observation
may be defined as systematic viewing,
coupled with consideration of seen
phenomenon.”
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Observation
ADVANTAGES:
Subjective bias eliminated (No bias info)
 Information researcher gets is Current
information Independent to respondent’s
variable (as in interview and may be bias )
DISADVANTAGES:
 It is expensive method (time requires more)
 Limited information
Unforeseen factors may interfere with
observational task
 Respondents opinion can not be recorded on
certain subject
Structured and Unstructured Observation

Structured Observation:-
Observation techniques where the researcher
clearly defines the behaviors to be observed and
the methods by which they will be measured.
When observation is done by recording the
observed information in standardized format.
Unstructured Observation
Observation that involves a researcher monitoring
all relevant phenomena without specifying the
details in advance.
Participant & Non Participant Observation
Participant Observation-
 When the Observer is member of the group which he
is observing then it is Participant Observation
In participant observation researcher can record
natural behaviour of group , Researcher can verify the
truth of statements given by informants in the context
of questionnaire , Difficult to collect information can
obtain through this method but in this researcher may
loose objectivity of research due emotional feelings.
Non Participant Observation-
When observer is observing people without giving any
information to them then it is non participant
observation
Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
When the observation takes place in natural
condition i.e. uncontrolled observation. It is
done to get spontaneous picture of life and
persons
Controlled Observation
When observation takes place according to
definite pre arranged plans , with
experimental procedure then it is controlled
observation generally done in laboratory
under controlled condition.
Disguised & Undisguised
Observation
Disguised/Indirect observation
In this, the respondents are unaware that they
are being observed. It enables the respondents
to behave naturally.

Undisguised/Direct observation
In this, respondents are aware that they are
under observation. They are aware of the
presence of the observer.
 Observation

Person Mechan Content Trace

Audit analysis
al ical analysis
 Types of Observation
1. Personal Observation
An observational research strategy in which human
observers record the phenomenon being observed
as it occurs.
2. Mechanical observation
An observational research strategy in which
mechanical devices rather than human observers
record the phenomenon being observed.
3. Audit
In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining
physical records.
Ex :Pantry audit
In this a researcher inventories the brands,
 Types of Observation
4. Content Analysis
It is an appropriate method when the phenomenon to
be observed is communication, rather than behavior
or physical objects. It is defined as the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the content
of the communication. The unit of analysis may be
words, characters, themes, space and time measures.
5. Trace Analysis
An approach in which data collection is based on
physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior.
Eg.
Internet visitors leave traces
Dust bins of a canteen
Questionnaire
 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain
statistically useful information about a given topic. When properly
constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires become a
vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific
groups or people or entire populations.
They are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information
from a large number of individuals, often referred to as respondents.
Adequate questionnaire construction is critical to the success of
a survey.
Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect
scaling, or bad questionnaire format can make the survey valueless,
as it may not accurately reflect the views and opinions of the
participants.
So, it is a structured technique for data collection that
consists of a series of questions, written or verbal, that a
respondent answers.
Questionnaire-
Characteristics
Characteristics of a Questionnaire
Elicits information from respondents
Results can be tabulated
Standardized across respondents
Understandable to respondents

A good questionnaire must

provide the necessary information
be considerate of respondents
meet coding and data processing
requirements
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire
Advantages
 Can reach a large number of people relatively easily and
economically
 Provide quantifiable answers

 Relatively easy to analyse

Disadvantages
Provides only limited insight into problem
Limited response allowed by questions
Maybe not the right questions are asked
Varying response
Misunderstanding/misinterpretation
Need to get it right first time
Hard to chase after missing data
Step 1: Determine Survey Objectives

Translates research objectives into

information requirements
Survey objectives should be spelled out as
clearly and precisely as possible

 Rule 1 - Let the research objectives

dictate what questions to ask
 Rule 2 - Avoid unnecessary
questions
Step 2: Determine the Data Collection Method

Which data collection mode will be

used.
Personal (Self administered)
Telephone
Electronic
Mail
Each method has a different impact on
survey design
Step 3: Determine the Question Response
Format

1. Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions are those in which the
respondent can reply in his/her own words
Example of an open-ended question:

Q. Who do you think will win the ICC Cricket

World Cup and Why?
Open-Ended
Open-Ended Questions
Questions

Open-ended questions are useful:

To interpret closed-ended responses
When there are too many alternatives to
list
When alternatives vary between
respondents or are not clear
When intensity of feeling is important for
some sensitive issues (e.g. illness)
 Open-Ended
Open-Ended Questions
Questions
Advantages
More information
Wide range of responses
Maybe more accurate description
Limitations
Respondent articulateness can lead to
error/variation
Time consuming for respondent
Coding and analysis is difficult
Types of Open Ended Questions
Completely unstructured - For example, "What is
your opinion on questionnaires?"
Word association - Words are presented and the
respondent mentions the first word that comes to
mind.
Sentence completion - Respondents complete an
incomplete sentence. For example, "The most
important consideration in my decision to buy a
new house is . . ."
Story completion - Respondents complete an
incomplete story.
Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty
conversation balloon.
Thematic apperception test - Respondents
explain a picture or make up a story about what
2. Closed-Ended Questions
A closed-ended question is one that requires the
respondent to make a selection from a list of
options
The primary advantage of closed-ended questions
is avoiding the problems of open-ended questions
(such as subjectivity, coding, etc.)
Types
Dichotomous – Respondent chooses between
two alternatives
Multiple-Choice – Respondent selects from
among several alternatives
Q. Who do you think will win the ICC Cricket World Cup?
 A. India
 B. England
 C. Netherlands
 D. West Indies
 CLOSED QUESTIONS
1. Straightforward response
What is your age in years? ___ years
How long have you owned a dog? ___ years
What is your gender?
Male 
Female 
Did you stay in Hotel X on 23/2/17?
Yes 
No 
Don’t know 
 CLOSED QUESTIONS
2. Checklist
Which of the following outdoor
activities
did you do last week?
 Running 
 Walking 
 Hiking 
 Cycling 
 Swimming 
CLOSED QUESTIONS
3. Rating scale
Did you do use sunscreen during the
following outdoor activities during the
past six months?
Always Sometimes Seldomly Never
Running    
Walking    
Cycling    
 CLOSED QUESTIONS
4. Rating scale
Numerical
How useful would you think that
information on
the risk of biting from stray dogs would
be?
(please circle)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all useful Very useful

Analogue
How much is your pain severe (put the
tick on the line)

0 10
CLOSED QUESTIONS
5. Scales for measuring attitude (Likert)

Stray dogs carry a higher risk of rabies

No, I strongly disagree 
No, I disagree quite a lot 
No, I disagree just a little 
I’m not sure about this 
Yes, I agree just a little 
Yes, I agree quite a lot 
Yes, I strongly agree 
Closed-Ended
Closed-Ended Questions
Questions
Advantages
Easier to answer
Reduce measurement error by
overcoming respondent articulateness
and possible interviewer bias
Easy to code and analyze
More likely to respond for some personal
data (e.g. income, age)
Disadvantages
Information is lost
Answers may not be precise
Not able to develop alternatives
3. Scaled-Response Questions
Question format that permits measurement
of the “intensity” of a respondent’s answers
Example of a scaled-response question:

Now that you have tried the new sugar-free ice- cream, would
you say that you would… (Check one)
definitely buy it
probably buy it
might or might not buy it
probably not buy it
definitely not buy it
4. Contingency questions - A question that
is answered only if the respondent gives a
particular response to a previous question. This
avoids asking questions of people that do not
apply to them.
Step
Step 4:
4: Question
Question Wording
Wording
 Rule 3: Use simple words
e.g., not “marital status” but whether
“married,” “single” or “divorced”
 Rule 4: Use unambiguous words (words
that are easily and clearly understood)
e.g. not “where do you usually buy school
supplies?”
but “from which retailer(s) did you buy school
supplies this year?”
“where” and “usually” are often ambiguous
 Question
Question Wording
Wording

 Rule 5: Avoid “double-barreled”

questions (two questions in one)
e.g., “What is your opinion about the price
and convenience when you buy from Big
Bazar?”

 Rule 6: Avoid leading questions

(questions that imply an answer)
e.g. “Do you agree that the government
should cut taxes so that we can lead better
lives?”
 Question
Question Wording
Wording
 Rule 7: Avoid “loaded” questions
(framing questions so that they are
leading or emotionally charged)
e.g., “Do you think chemical companies are
doing everything possible to control
pollution?”

 Rule 8: Avoid burdensome questions

(questions that tax memory or skills)
“How many different brands of breakfast
cereal have you bought in the last twelve
months?”
 Question
Question Wording
Wording
 Rule 9: Clarify references (how the should
respondent answer)
e.g., “State your annual income” [personal income or household
income?]

 Rule 10: Alternatives should be mutually

exclusive (no overlap), collectively
exhaustive(including every possible answer),
and have reasonable range
e.g., What is your annual household income?
__ $0 - $10,000
__ $10,000 - $15,000
__ $15,000 - $20,000
__ $40,000 - $60,000
 Question
Question Wording
Wording –– Scaled
Scaled
Responses
Responses
 Rule 11: Use appropriate phrases
e.g.,
B. Are you: (1) amazingly happy, (2) middling
happy or (3) kind of unhappy (check one)
A. Are you: (1) very happy, (2) happy or (3)
unhappy (check one)

 Rule 12: Avoid order bias

e.g., should you start with (1) as “very happy” or
(1) as “unhappy?”
 Question
Question Wording
Wording -- Sensitive
Sensitive //
Embarrassing
Embarrassing Questions
Questions
Questions about borrowing money, personal
hygiene, criminal history, etc. must be
phrased carefully to minimize measurement
error
Suggestions/Techniques - Not Rules
 Ask non-threateningly and mix with other
questions
e.g., How many times each day do you brush your
teeth?
 Frame question to prompt more honest responses
e.g., Many people find it difficult to brush their
 Step 5: Questionnaire Flow and
Layout

Use screening After identifying

qualified respondent,
questions to Ask general
begin with
with a question
question
identify qualified questions
questions first
first
that
that grabs
grabs the
the
respondents respondent’s interest

Position sensitive,
complex, Ask questions that
complex, and
and Insert “prompters”
demographic require
require “work”
“work” in
in
at
at strategic
strategic points
points the
the middle of the
the
questions as the
end questionnaire
end
Step 5: Questionnaire Flow and
Layout
 Rule 13: Opening questions should
be simple and interesting – begin
with open-ended question if warm-
up is necessary
 Rule 14: Use “funnel approach” –
ask most general questions first,
then increasingly specific questions
 Rule 15: Questions should flow
smoothly and logically
Step 5: Questionnaire Flow and
Layout

 Rule 16: Ask “screener” questions up

front to assess respondent qualifications
 Rule 17: Ask sensitive questions near the
end
 Rule 18: Ask for demographic information
at the end
 Rule 19: The questionnaire’s appearance
should be attractive and professional
 Step 6: Evaluate the
Questionnaire

 Is each question necessary?

 Is the questionnaire too long?
 Will the questions provide the desired information
to accomplish the research objectives?
 Is the layout attractive and professional?
Step 8: Pretest and Revise
 Rule 20: Always pretest your
questionnaire
Pretesting can be done by giving the
questionnaire to a few friends, “experts”,
and potential respondents (may be 5-10
persons total), asking them to fill out, and
obtaining their feedback
Rule is 10% of the total sample
Step
Step 8:
8: Pretest
Pretest and
and Revise
Revise
Pretest the questionnaire for:
wording of individual questions
flow of the questionnaire
length
respondent interest and attention
Step 9: Prepare Final Copy
Even the final copy phase does not
allow the researcher to relax.
Precise typing instructions, spacing,
numbering, and pre coding must be
set up, monitored, and proofread,
before …

Step 10: Implement the

Survey
 SUMMARY
A well designed questionnaire:
Will give appropriate data which allow to
answer your research question
Will minimise potential sources of bias, thus
increasing the validity of the questionnaire
Will much more likely be completed
FINALLY, KEEP YOUR
QUESTIONNAIRE SHORT
AND THE QUESTIONS
SIMPLE, FOCUSED AND
APPROPRIATE
Type Of Questionnaire
1. Structured questionnaire 
a) Have definite and concrete questions.
b) Is prepared well in advance.
c) Initiates a formal inquiry.
d) Supplements and checks the data, previously
accumulated.
e) Used in studies of the economics and the social
problems, studies of the administrative policies and
changes etc.
2. Unstructured questionnaire 
a) Used at the time of the interview.
b) Acts as the guide for the interviewer.
c) Is very flexible in working.
d) Used in studies related to the group of families or
those relating to the personal experiences, beliefs etc.
A questionnaire can also be divided as the follows
depending on the nature of the questions
1. Open ended questionnaire 
a) Respondent is free to express his views and the ideas.
b) Used in making intensive studies of the limited number
of the cases.
c) Merely an issue is raised by such a questionnaire.
d) Do not provide any structure for the respondent’s reply.
e) The questions and their orders are pre – determined in
the nature.

2. Close ended questionnaire 

a) Responses are limited to the stated alternatives.
b) One of the alternatives is simply YES or NO.
c) Respondent cannot express his own judgment.
A questionnaire can also be divided as
the follows depending on the nature of
the questions

3. Mixed questionnaire
a) Questions are both close and open ended.
b) Used in field of social research.
 
4. Pictorial questionnaire 
a) Used very rarely.
b) Pictures are used to promote the interest
in answering the questions.
c) Used in studies related to the social
attitudes and the pre – judices in the children