DRYING

DRYING
• Probably oldest form of food preservation
• Most widely used preservative method

THEORY:  REDUCING THE AMOUNT OF FREE WATER WILL

PREVENT MICROBIAL AND CHEMICAL SPOILAGE
Drying: Process of removal of water/ moisture by
using non-conventional energy sources like sun or
wind.
Dehydration: Process of removal of water/
moisture by application of artificial heat under
controlled conditions of temperature and/ or
humidity and air flow.
ADVANTAGES OF DRIED FOODS

Reduce transport weight Enhance storage stability

For off-season use Minimize packaging requirement

 DRY FOODS - Aw OF 0.2 TO 0.6
• < 0.6 prevents microbial growth
• 0.2 - 0.3 prevents many chemical reactions.

INTERMEDIATE MOISTURE FOODS

• 0.8 to 0.9
• Use mold inhibitors
Water activity, (aw): Ratio of vapor pressure exerted by water in
solid to that of pure water at the same temperature.

Water activity or aw was developed to account for the intensity with

which water associates with various non-aqueous constituents and solids.
Simply stated, it is a measure of the energy status of the water in a
system. It is defined as the vapor pressure of a liquid divided by that of
pure water at the same temperature therefore, pure distilled water has a
water activity of exactly one.
Typical water activity of some foods
Aw – examples
0.95 – fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, milk
0.91 – some cheeses, ham
0.87 – salami, pepperoni, dry cheeses, margarine,
0.80 – fruit juice concentrates, sweetened condensed milk, syrups,
flour, rice, high sugar cakes
0.75 – jam, marmalade
0.65 – oatmeal, fudge, marshmallows, jelly, molasses, sugar, nuts
0.60 – dried fruits, honey
0.50 – dried pasta, dried spices
0.30 – cookies, crackers
0.03 – dry milk, dehydrated soups, corn flakes
• As the temperature increases, aw typically increases, except in
some products with crystalline salt or sugar.

• Higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms.

Bacteria usually require at least 0.91, and fungi at least 0.7.

• Water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw. For

example, if honey (aw ≈ 0.6) is exposed to humid air (aw ≈ 0.7)
the honey will absorb water from the air.
Drying is a complex operation involving transient transfer of heat and mass
along with several rate processes, such as physical or chemical
transformations, which, in turn, may cause changes in product quality as well
as the mechanisms of heat and mass transfer.

• Food constituents; proteins, carbohydrates, fats,

vitamins, enzymes, inorganic salts, have different
hydration properties (aw, We, drying mechanism).
• During drying solubles move with water (hc, s )
• The food shrinks (hc, s, d)
• Case hardening (hc).
• Reconstitutability of dried foods
Crops Initial moisture Final moisture Water removed
content (%) wb content (%) wb (kg/t of dried
product)
GRAIN
Wheat, barley, 20-25 14-16 50-147
rye, oats, paddy 25-45 12-14 147-600
Corn
VEGETABLES
Peas, beans 60-70 5-10 1250-2157
Potatoes 65-85 14 1458-4733
Onion, Garlic, 70-80 5-10 2000-3750
Carrot, beets, 80-90 5-10 3500-8500
Cabbage,
Tamatoes 90-95 5-10 8000-3300
FRUITS
Apples, 75-80 14-23 2080-3300
Apricots,
peaches, prunces,
grapes, figs,
banana
 QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
 METHODS OF DRYING
Drying for
Foods

Dehydrated Powder
Product

Evaporation of Osmotic Using Wave Spray Dryer Drum Dryer Foam mat
Moisture Dehydration Technique Dryer

Microwave
Direct Freeze
Drying Drying

Ultra Sound
Solar
Energy

Air Drying

Vacuum
Drying
DIRECT DRYING

• Drying or dehydration of material means removal of moisture from the

interior of the material to the surface and then to remove this moisture from
the surface of the drying material.

• The drying of product is a complex heat and mass transfer process which
depends on external parameters such as

• Air properties
– temperature,
– Humidity of air and
– velocity of the air stream

• drying material properties

– surface characteristics (rough or smooth surface),
– chemical composition (sugar, starches, etc)
– physical structure (porosity. density. etc.);
– size and shape of the product.
Humid heat: Heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
dry air and its associated vapor through one degree (J kg-1 K-1)

Humidity, absolute: Y Mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry

air (kg kg-1)

Humidity: Ratio of partial pressure of water vapor in gas-vapor

mixture to equilibrium vapor pressure at the same temperature.

Relative humidity of atmosphere = pw / ps (partial pressure of

water vapor/ saturation partial pressure of pure water)T
At equilibrium: pw = P , ps = Po
Relative humidity (RH) of air
Air at a given temperature is capable of
taking up water vapour until it is saturated
(at 100% RH ). If the temperature is
raised then the air will be able to take up
more moisture and the relative humidity
falls.

RH of air is dependent not only on the

amount of moisture in the air, but also on
its temperature, as the amount of water
required to saturate air is itself dependent
on temperature.
• It should be noted that in convective drying, where warm air is passed over
the surface of a wet solid, the relative humidity may rise during the drying
process as a result of two separate factors:-

• Uptake of evaporated water vapour from the wet solid,

• The cooling of the supply air as it transfers heat to the wet solid (evaporative
cooling).
• If the cooling is excessive the temperature of the air may fall to a value
known as the dew point, when liquid water will condense and be deposited.
 Total moisture content: This is the total amount of liquid associated with a wet
solid. The easily removable water is known as the free moisture content, and the
moisture which is more difficult to remove is the equilibrium moisture content.

• Unbound water: This water exists as a liquid and exerts its fully vapour pressure, it
can be removed readily by evaporation. During a drying process this water is easily
lost but the resulting solid is not completely free from water molecules.

• Bound water :
Part of the moisture present in a wet solid may be
adsorbed on surfaces of the solid or be adsorbed
within its structure to such an extent to prevent it
from developing its full vapour pressure and from
being easily removed by evaporation.” and is
more difficult to remove than unbound water.

• Equilibrium moisture content:

• The moisture content present in a solid under

steady-state ambient conditions is termed the eq.
moisture content. Its value changes with
temperature, humidity and the nature of the solid.
Falling rate period: Drying period under constant drying conditions
during which the rate false continuously with time

Constant rate drying period:

Under constant drying
conditions, drying period when
evaporation rate per unit drying
area is constant (when surface
moisture is removed

Critical moisture content,

Xc; Moisture content at
which the drying rate first
begins to drop (under
constant drying conditions)
The rate of moisture movement from the product inside to the air outside differs
from one product to another and very much depends on whether the material is
hygroscopic or non-hygroscopic. Non-hygroscopic material can be dried to zero
moisture level. Hygroscopic materials like most of the food products will always
have a residual moisture content.

• This moisture in hygroscopic material may be a bound moisture (remains) in

the material due to closed capillaries or due to surface forces) or unbound
moisture which remains in the material due to surface tension of water.

• When the hygroscopic material is exposed to air, it will either absorb

moisture or desorb moisture depending on the relative humidity of air.

• The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) will soon be reached when the
vapour pressure of water in the material becomes equal to the partial
pressure of water in the surrounding air.

• The equilibrium moisture content is, therefore, important in the drying since
this is the minimum moisture to which the material can be dried under a
given set of drying conditions.
• Moisture and total solids contents of food can be calculated using one of the
equations below:

% Moisture (wt/wt) = wt H2O in sample X 100

wt of wet sample

% Moisture (wt/wt) = wt of wet sample - wt of dry sample X 100

wt of wet sample

% Total solids (wt/wt) = wt of dry sample X 100

wt of wet sample
 Different techniques of drying of solids (Drying methods)

• The following points should be considered before the selection of the

suitable drying method:

• 1- Heat sensitivity the material being dried.

• 2- Physical characteristics of the material.
• 3- Nature of the liquid to be removed.
• 4- The scale of the operation.
• 5- Available sources of heat (steam, electrical).
Solar Dryer
 Convective Drying of Wet Solids
• I-Fixed (or static) bed convective drying e.g. tray drier

• Tray drier:

• Air flows in direction of the arrows over each shelf in turn. The wet material is
spread on shallow trays resting on the shelves. Electrical elements or steam-heated
pipes are positioned as shown, so that the air is periodically reheated after it has
cooled by passage over the wet material on one shelf before it passes on the next.
 Vacuum Dryer

• Operating pressure can be as low as 150 mmHg, at which pressures water

boils at 25-35 C.
Vapor
Temperature
pressure
(°C)
Advantages of vacuum oven: (mmHg)
0 4.5
5 6.8
• Drying takes place at a low
10 9.0
temperature. 20 17.3
• There is little air present, so, 30 31.5
there is minimum risk of oxidation. 40 55.5
50 92.3
60 149.3
70 234.0
80 354.9
90 525.8
100 760.0
 Fluidized-bed drying

• Efficient heat and mass transfer give high

drying rates, so that drying times are
shorter than with static-bed convection
driers. Economic, heat challenge to
thermolabile materials is minimized.

• The fluidized state of the bed ensures that

drying occurs from the surface of all the
individual particles and not just from the
surface of the bed. Hence, most of the
drying will be at constant rate and the
falling –rate period is very short.

• The temperature of a fluidized bed is uniform and can be controlled

precisely.

• The turbulence in a fluidized bed causes some attrition to the surface of the
granule. This produces a more spherical free-flowing product.

• The free movement of individual particles eliminates the risk of soluble

materials migrating, as may occur in static beds.
Rotary Dryer
General principles for efficient drying

• Large surface area for heat transfer.

• Efficient heat transfer per unit area (to supply sufficient latent heat of
vaporization or heat of sublimation in case of freeze-drying)

• Efficient mass transfer of evaporated water through any surrounding

boundary layers, i.e. sufficient turbulence to minimize boundary layer
thickness.

• Efficient vapour removal , i.e. low relative humidity air at adequate velocity.

• It is convenient to categorize pharmaceutical driers according to the heat

transfer method they use, i.e. convective, conductive or radiant.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

 A self-propagating, transverse oscillating

wave of electric and magnetic fields
• Proposed by James
Maxwell in 1867
and confirmed by
Heinrich Hurtz.
                • Formed when an
electric field
couples with a
magnetic field
• Magnetic and
electric fields are
perpendicular to
each other 35
 High frequency Short wavelength
Gamma Rays
 
                        
0.01 nm
X-Rays 1 nm
 

 
                        
Ultra-Violet 100 nm
 
                        
Visible light 400-700 nm
 
                        
Infra-Red 0.01 mm
 
                                    
Microwaves 1 cm
 
                        
Radio waves 1 m - 1km
 
                        
Low frequency
Long wavelength

f x λ = Speed of light 36
 CLASSIFICATION OF EMRs

Ionizing Non-Ionizing
 Light waves (1.7 eV - 3.3 eV)
 Gamma rays (1.24 MeV)
 Infrared waves (12.4 meV-1.7eV)
 X-rays
>4eV>  Microwaves (124µeV-12.4meV)

 Ultraviolet rays  Radiowaves (12.4peV- 124 µeV)

 (Radiowaves (12.4peV- 124 µeV)

1 joule = 6.24 x 1018 electron volts

37
 HOW EMR GENERATES HEAT?

Vibrational movement
Thermal radiation

Absorption

Rotational movement

Dielectric heating

Dielectric Properties 38
Dipolar rotation Ionic polarization
WHY EMR HEATING IS BENEFICIAL?

Improved rate of heat and mass transfer

Reduced processing time
Improved product quality
Reduction in processing cost (reduced time, instantaneous
on/off)
Desirable change in texture – Rapidity of heating

39
 FEATURES OF
FEATURES OF INFRARED
INFRARED RADIATION
RADIATION

 Does not require any medium for transfer

 Can penetrate the material and heat both surface and inner
layers
 Provides very high heat density (10-50 times higher than
the hot air)
 Like light radiation it can be absorbed, reflected and
transmitted
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FACTORS AFFECTING IR
IR ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION

 Optical characteristics of the material

Absorptivity, Transmissivity and Reflectivity

 Physicochemical nature of the product

Size, Shape, Color, Chemical composition

 Wavelength of radiation
Normal resonance to match with incident radiation
frequency
σ = Stephan Boltzmann's constant
A = Area
Q  AFT 4 F = Shape factor
α = Absorptivity
T – Temperature
41
 CLASSIFICATION OF IR RADIATION

NIR: Rapid heating, high temperature – HTST (baking, roasting)

MIR: Longer processing time – High moisture content (drying)
FIR: Surface heating, lower temperature – Trace amount of moisture,
thin material
42
42
 IR HEAT
IR HEAT SOURCES
SOURCES
QUARTZ HEATERS CERAMIC HEATERS

43
 DRYING PROTECTIVE
PAINT BAKING COAT ONDIE CASTING
RADIATORS

TEXTILE
PAPER DRYING 44
 LIMITATIONS OF IR HEATING

 Depth of penetration has limitations,

hence not suitable for thicker material

 Since radiation is emitted in straight lines

from the source, the shape of the object to
be treated is a critical factor

 Heat sensitive products to be processed

under ‘controlled conditions’

 System to be ‘custom made’

45
 Radiation Drying of Wet Solids
• Radiant heat transmission:

• Heat transmission by radiation differs from heat transfer by conduction

or convection in that no transfer medium (solid, liquid or gaseous) need
be present. Heat energy in the form of radiation can cross empty space or
travel through the atmosphere virtually without loss. If it falls on a body
capable of absorbing it then it appears as heat, although a proportion may
be reflected or transmitted.

• Use of infrared radiation :

• Infrared heating has been used to dry wet granules, but it suffers from the
disadvantage that it is absorbed very quickly and does not penetrate far
into the wet mass.

• The surface layers dry quickly and the absorption of further energy then
raises the temperature of the dry material to a high value.
 TYPE OF WAVE FREQUENCIES
13.56 MHZ ±6.68 kHZ
RADIOFREQUENCY WAVES 27.12 MHZ ±160.00 kHZ
40.68 MHZ ±20.00 kHZ
ISM frequencies
• The RF generator creates
an alternating electric field
between two electrodes.
• The material to be heated is
conveyed between the
electrodes where the
alternating energy causes
polar molecules in the
material to continuously
reorient themselves.

47
 Radio Frequency Drying Process

In radio frequency drying system alternating electric

field between two electrodes is created by RF
generator. The material to be dried is put acrossed
between the electrodes, where the alternating energy
causes polar molecules in the water to continuously
re-orient them to face opposite poles - much the
same way magnets move in an alternating magnetic
field. This movement causes the friction and due to
this water in the material to rapidly evaporate
throughout the material.
 NON-FOOD APPLICATIONS

 Paper Industry
 Timber Industry
 Textile Industry
 Plastic Industry RF Cloth dryer

 Incense stick drying

 Radiofrequency identification
(RFID) RF spool dryer

Paper drying 50
RF plastic sealing
• Water is more receptive than any other dielectric material. So in process of
RF drying RF power will absorbed in higher amount from wetter areas
which resulting Uniform Moisture Distribution.

• In conventional drying process many times, uneven shrinking

consequences into surface cracking. In RF drying due to uniform moisture
distribution Surface Cracking is reduced.

• In RF drying Radio Frequency is direct form of applying heat so in this

process No Wastage of Heat.

• Radio Frequency Dryer required one fifth or one eighth space required over
conventional dryer.

• RF drying is 2 to 20 times Faster than conventional drying methods.

• This process is Eco Friendly process.

• Maintenance Cost is low as compare to other drying process.

 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Wavelengthc/f with c = 3.108m/s

RF MW


300 MHz – 300 GHz

f
Hz
4 1 25
M  915 MHz Industrial Allocated by FCC
&2 (wavelength in free space=0.33 m)
5 80
0 for Industrial, Scientific
2450 MHz Domestic Ovens &
Industrial Uses (0.12 m) Medical (ISM) applications
 Microwave radiation

• Although energy in the IR region is more easily generated there are other,
longer, wavelengths that can generate heat when the radiation is absorbed
by a wet solid. Microwave radiation in the wavelength range 10 mm to 1m
penetrates much better than IR radiation.

• Generation and action of microwaves

• Microwaves are produced by an electronic device known as a magnetron.

Microwave energy can be reflected down through a window into a drying
chamber.

• The penetration of microwaves into the wet product is so good that heat
is generated uniformly within the solid.
• When microwaves fall on substances of small polar molecules such as water, the
electrons in the molecule try to resonate in sympathy with the radiation and the
resulting molecular “Friction” results in the generation of heat. Dry solids do not
resonate as well as water, so further heating may be avoided once the water is
removed.

• The absorption of the microwave energy is far greater for small polar molecules
than for larger and less polar molecules (methanol-ethanol-water are larger than
starch and lactose which is larger and less polar molecules). This is indicated by
the value of the loss factors of each substance. The loss factor is a measure of the
ratio of the microwave energy absorbed by individual molecules, the higher the
number the greater the absorption of microwave energy.
Microwave dryer is designed to operate under a slight vacuum. This in itself
is not essential for the use of microwaves, but the air flow allows the
continuous removal of evaporated solvent.

The radiation is generated by multiple magnetrons. The radiation passes

through a window into the drying chamber, where it is absorbed by the
liquid in the wet granules contained on a tray.

The heat generated in the mass drives off the moisture and the evolved
vapour is drawn away in the air flow as it is formed.

When drying is nearly complete the radiation field intensity will rise, as the
dry solids do not absorb as readily as water.

This rise is detected and the magnetrons are progressively turned off
automatically, to give an accurate control of the final moisture content and
minimize the danger of over-heating.
Advantages of microwave drying:
• It provides rapid drying at low temperature.

• The thermal efficiency is high, as the drier casing and the air
remain cool. Most of the microwave energy is absorbed by the
liquid in the wet material.

• The bed is stationary, avoiding the problems of dust and attrition.

• Solute migration is reduced as there is uniform heating of the wet

mass.

• Equipment is highly efficient; all the requirements of product and

operator safety follow the GMP considerations.

• Granulation end-point can be detected by measuring the residual

microwave energy, ( it is rises sharply when there is little solvent
left to evaporate).
 Drum Dryer (Film Drying)
• It consists of a drum of about 0, 75-1.5 m in diameter and 2-4 m in length, heated
internally, usually by steam, and rotated on its longitudinal axis.

• The liquid is applied to the surface and spread to a film, this may be done in
various ways, but the simplest method is that shown in the diagram, where the
drum dips into a feed pan. Drying rate is controlled by using a suitable speed of
rotation and the drum temperature. The product is scraped from the surface of
the drum by means of a doctor knife.
 Advantages of the drum dryer

• The method gives rapid drying, the thin film spread over a large area
resulting in rapid heat and mass transfer.
• The equipment is compact, occupying much less space than other
dryers.
• Heating time is short, being only a few seconds.
• The drum can be enclosed in a vacuum jacket, enabling the
temperature of drying to be reduced.
• The product is obtained in flake form, which is convenient for many
purposes.

• The only disadvantage : is that operating conditions are critical and it

is necessary to introduce careful control on feed rate, film thickness,
speed of drum rotation and drum temperature.

• Uses: It can handle a variety of materials, either as solutions or as

suspensions e.g. starch products,
 Spray Dryer

The spray dryer provides a large surface area for heat and mass transfer by
atomizing the liquid to small droplets. These are sprayed into a stream of
hot air, so that each droplet dries to a solid particle.

• The drying chamber resembles the cyclone ensuring good circulation of

air, to facilitate heat and mass transfer, and that dried particles are
separated by the centrifugal action.
• The character of the particles is controlled by the
droplet form; hence the type of atomizer is
important.
• Rotary atomizer is preferable than jet which is
easily blocked. Liquid is fed to the disc of the
atomizer which is rotated at high speed (up to
20,000 rpm), a film is formed and spread as
uniform spray. In addition, the rotary atomizer is
effective with suspensions. It can be operated
efficiently at various feed rates.

The products are uniform in appearance and have characteristic shape, in the form of
hollow spheres with a small hole. This arises from the drying process, since the
droplet enters the hot air stream, and dries on the outside to form an outer crust with
liquid still in the center. This liquid then vaporizes, the vapour escaping by blowing
a hole in the sphere.

This method of drying allows a dry product to retain some properties of feed , e.g., a
drop from an emulsion dries with continuous phase on the outside. When
reconstituted, the emulsion is easily re- formed.
 Advantages of the spray drying process
• The droplets are small, giving a large surface area for heat transfer, so that evaporation is
very rapid. The actual drying time of a droplet is only a fraction of a second, and the
overall time in the dryer is only a few seconds.

• Because evaporation is very rapid, the droplets do not attain a high temperature, most of
the heat being used as latent heat of vaporization.

• The characteristic particle form gives the product a high bulk density and, in turn, ready
solubility.

• The powder will have a uniform and controllable particle size.

• The product is free-flowing, with almost spherical particles.

• Labour costs are low, the process yielding a dry, free-flowing powder from a dilute solution,
in a single operation with no handling.

• Some spray driers operate in a closed-circuit mode with an inert gas to minimize
oxidation of the product.
 Freeze Drying

• Freeze drying is a process used to dry

extremely heat – sensitive materials. It
allows the drying , without excessive damage,

• In this process the initial liquid solution or

suspension is frozen, the pressure above the
frozen state is reduced and the water removed
by sublimation.

• Thus a liquid –to-vapour transition takes

place, but here three states of matter involved:
liquid to solid, then solid to vapour
II. FREEZING – TEMPERATURES
• < 32 F (0° C)
• Change in water from liquid to solid.
THEORY: 
1. Lower temperature. Will reduce spoilage.

2. Water is unavailable for microorganisms and chemical reactions.

WHY FREEZE?
1. In general frozen foods are better nutritionally and organoleptically
than other processed foods.
2. Long shelf life
3. Convenient - shorter cook times

DISADVANTAGE:   
• Energy intensive
 Freeze drying

• Drying is carried out under very high vacuum,(below 300 N/m2 

0.003atm.). Processing pressures between 13.5-270 N/m2, at a range of
temperatures. Quality of final product is sensitive to the processing pressure-
temperature combination.

• Product has a light, porous structure retaining the original shape and size.

• Minimal shrinkage, reconstitution characteristics are good both in the rate

and extent.

• Commercial applications: instant tea, coffee, shrimps, prawns, some rare

fruits (berries) and vegetables; products for which flavor and
reconstitutability are important quality factors
 Freeze-drying
1. Freezing
• Cooling method
Foods can be cooled or frozen by heat conduction with low-temperature
solid (such as shelf) or heat convection with low-temperature air or liquid.

• Cooling rate
Freezing is classified as quick freezing and slow freezing. Small ice with
great numbers will be formed during quick freezing process and the
structure of freeze dried products is denser. Quick freezing has little damage
to the cell membrane and protein of foods. The water-holding ability and the
flexibility of the rehydrated food are high. But in drying process, there is
greater diffusion resistance for the escape of vapor. Big ices will form
during slow freezing and the cell membrane and protein are seriously
damaged.
TYPES OF FREEZING:

1. AIR FREEZING - Products frozen by either "still" or  "blast" forced air.
• cheapest (investment)
• "still" slowest more product changes
• "blast" faster, more commonly used

2. INDIRECT CONTACT - Food placed in direct contact with cooled metal

surface.
• relatively faster
• more expensive

3. DIRECT CONTACT - Food placed in direct contact w/refrigerant (liquid

nitrogen, "green" freon,  carbon dioxide snow)
• faster
• expensive
• freeze individual food particles
Immersion freezing

Traditionally foods were immersed in solutions of salt

and ice for several hours, e.g. brine, freezing of fish at
sea. However, modern methods of freezing have meant
that this process is rarely used. Refrigerants are now
sprayed directly onto the food.

Plate freezing

The food is prepared as normal, then packed

between flat, hollow, refrigerated metal plates.
These are adjusted to press tightly on the food
and reduce any air gaps. The plates may be
horizontal or vertical, the latter being used for
many bulky products, such as blocks of fish
for fish fingers. This system is ideal for
freezing large blocks of product, but cannot
easily freeze irregular shaped items.
Blast freezing
Batches of food are subjected to a constant,
steady stream of cold air (-40ºC or lower) in a
tunnel or large cabinet. This process can freeze
irregular shaped foods, including those which
have already been packaged, e.g. battered fish
pieces.

Fluidised bed freezing

Vertical jets of refrigerated air are blown up

through the product, causing it to float and
remain separated. This is a continuous
process which takes up to 10 minutes. The
product, e.g. peas, beans, chopped
vegetables or prawns, move along a
conveyor belt.
 Scraped heat exchangers

Products such as ice cream are frozen

using this method in order to stir and
freeze simultaneously. It reduces large
ice crystal formation, producing a smooth
end product.

Cryogenic freezing

Liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide is

sprayed directly onto small food items
such as soft fruit and prawns. Due to the
liquids’ extremely low temperatures (-
196ºC) and -78ºC respectively) freezing
is almost instant. The nitrogen gas is
removed by fans. Carbon dioxide is
used for larger products. The carbon
dioxide system is more economical and
the gas can be recycled into the system.
2. Sublimation drying
Sublimation drying (or primary drying) is the process to remove the free water in
food by sublimation. The heat supplied in this process should be equal to that
needed for ice in food to sublime.

3. Desorption drying

Desorption drying (or secondary drying) is the process to remove the bound
water in foods. Because of the large adsorption energy of bound water,
sufficient heat must be supplied in this process. The technical procedures
should be carefully designed to prevent the foods from collapse and coking.
The remaining water after desorption drying is controlled between 2% to 5%.
• End temperature
In theory, the end freezing temperature should be 5-10 K lower than .

Name Tg' Name Tg'

Potato -12~-16 strawberry -33 ～ -41

Cauliflower -25 banana -35
Carrot -25.5 apple -41
tomato -41.5 peach -36.5

Green peas -27.5 pineapple juice -37.5

spinach -17 apple juice -40.5

Sweet corn
-9.5 Lemon juice -43
Blanched
White grape
Orange juice -37 -42.5
juice
Prevent moisture absorption and oxidation

• Moisture absorption: The freeze-dried slices will contract when

absorbing moisture. The freeze-dried granular powders will cake and
agglomerate when absorbing moisture. It is necessary to prevent freeze-
dried food from moisture absorption because freeze-dried food will lose
its intrinsic properties, or even deteriorate after absorbing moisture.

• The amount of water contained by foods is fixed at a specific temperature

and relative humidity. The capacity of moisture absorption can be
determined by the water contents in foods in various relative humidity.
The quality of freeze dried foods in storage was affected by water
contents and the kind of bond to the solids, that is, the shelf life of freeze
dried foods depends on the type of foods.

• Oxidation: The specific surface area of freeze-dried food is large, the

contact area with the oxygen in the air is also larger, so the fat and oil-
soluble components in freeze-dried food (carotenoids, chlorophyll, ascorbic
acid, etc.) will be oxidized when exposed to oxygen, which will results in
the discoloring, fading and even deteriorating of foods.
The advantages of freeze-dried food

• The process at low temperature and low pressure makes freeze drying an
effective way to keep the color, smell, flavor and heat-sensitive nutrients of
food and also eliminates the surface hardening of food.

• Freeze-dried food is porous and easy to be rehydrated and instantly dissolved.

It can be consumed directly or after rehydration.

• Since freeze-dried food contains very low moisture content, it has relatively
small density and is easy to be transported. The freeze-dried food can be
preserved at room temperature for a long time, while the cost of transportation
is much lower than that of frozen food.

• No additives are added into the food during the freeze drying process.
The disadvantages of freeze-dried food

• If exposed directly to air, freeze-dried food will be rehydrated quickly and a

series of chemical reactions will happen, resulting in the deterioration of food.
The freeze-dried products have to be vacuum-packaging or vacuum-nitrogen
charged packaging. The packaging materials should be waterproof.

• During transportation and sale process, freeze-dried food is easy to be

powdered or cracked for its loose porous structure.

• Freeze-drying is a time-consuming and energy-consuming process, which lead

to higher product costs of freeze-dried food.

• Freeze drying system includes vacuum and refrigeration equipments. The

initial costs are relatively high.

• Freeze drying of food demands higher technological requirements and the

techniques are relevant to the types of foods.
ISSUES WITH FROZEN FOODS
1. Chemical reactions can occur in unfrozen water.
A. Some foods blanched or sulfited before freezing.
B. Vacuum packaging to keep out oxygen.
2. Undesirable physical changes
A. Fruits and vegetables lose crispness
B. Drip loss in meats and colloidal type foods (starch, emulsions)
• Freeze product faster
• Control temperature fluctuations in storage.
• Modify starch, egg systems, etc.
C. Freezer burn
•Package properly
•Control temperature fluctuations in storage.
D. Oxidation
•Off-flavors
•Vitamin loss
•Browning
E. Recrystallization
OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION
NUTRIENT CHANGES AND OVERALL QUALITY
1. PROTEINS:
º Digestibility can be reduced (high temperatures)
2. LOSS IN VITAMINS
º Water soluble
º Fat soluble
3. FATS:
º Potential for oxidative rancidity increases (high temperatures)

4. CARBOHYDRATES:
º Enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning.
º Carmelization increases
º Prevent or reduce color changes:
• sulfites
• blanching
5. SHAPE CHANGES
A. SUN DRYING
• Slow process
• Problems: no control
• Microorganisms and pests can attack
• Rain
• High nutrient loss
• Inexpensive products: grains, acid fruits, spices
B. HOT AIR DRYING
• More efficient/control
• Lower nutrient loss
• More expensive
• Products: dried vegetables, pasta, some fruits

C. DRUM DRYING
• More efficient than hot air
• Lower nutrient loss
• Cost about equal with air
• Products: potato pastes & slurries
D. SPRAY DRYING
• Low nutrient loss
• More expensive than drum or air drying
• Good control/efficiency
• Use only for liquids
• Products: milk, instant tea and coffee

F. FREEZE DRYING
• Best nutrient quality
• Best product quality (shape; rehydration)
• Most expensive
• Good control
 WHY HYBRID DRYING
TECHNOLOGY ? ? ?

Minimize product For heat sensitive

degradation/better materials
quality

Strong potential to
combine new and
Radiati classical techniques
Dry hot on Moist
air air

Synergistic effect -
Moisture Migration
Higher productivity
energy efficiency
85