Dwi Setyaningsih

Raw Herbs
Scope Traditional Herbal Medicines

Fresh
Dried Fermented
Consumption

Medicinal Medicinal
Powders Beverages
Extracts

Standardised Extracts Fractions & Isolates

Phytopharmaceutical Bioactive
Products Compounds

Prescription & OTC Drugs

Enzymes Essential Oils & Other
Volatiles

Agricultural Personal Care Flavour & Aromatherapy

Application & Cosmetics
Fragrance
The Family Tree of Herb Derivatives
 INDONESIAN AROMATIC PLANTS
Clove
Nutmeg
Benzoin
Cinnam
Cajepu
on
t Clove
Citronell
Nutme
a
g
Clove
Nutmeg
Patchoul
i Massoi
Pepper a

Cajeput
Canang
a Sandalwoo
Clove d Indonesia is #1 grower of
Citronell
a Cajeput, Cananga, Clove, Cubeb, Galanga,
Clove Kaffir lime, Massoia, Nutmeg, Patchouli
Cubeb
Galanga Indonesia is # 2-5 grower of Benzoin,
Ginger Cinnamon, Ginger, Pepper
Kaffir Sandalwood, Vetiver
Indonesian Essential Oil Production
 Total production 5,000-60,00 tons, USD 125-150 mill 2009
 80% of export comes from 3 main oils
 60% essential oil, 30% derivative products for export, 10% industry (food,
cosmetic, consumer goods, pharmacy)
No Items Output (MT) Remarks
1 Clove/Stem Leaf  1,900-2,000  Mostly for derivatives
2 Patchouli  900-1,000  
3 Nutmeg  350-400  
4 Citronella  300-400  Domestic > Export
5 Cajeput 200-300  Mostly for domestic
7 Gurjun  50-60  
6 Vetiver  25-30  
8 Cananga  12-15  
9 Massoia  12-13  
10 Eaglewood (aetoxylon sympetalum) 10-12
11 Lajagoa (alpina malaccensis) 3-4
12 Cubeb 2-3  
13 Sandalwood 1-2  
14 Kaffir Lime Leaf 1-2  
15 Agarwood 0.1-0.2  
Turpentine

Indonesia mengekspor sekitar 10 ribu ton p.a. crude turpentine

oil, padahal hanya dibutuhkan refinery skala kecil di berbagai
sentra produksi untuk mengisolasi alpha pinene & beta pinene
yang bisa dibuat lagi puluhan turunan kimia aromatik
WORLD ESSENTIAL OIL TRADE
 World total essential oil value is more than USD 4
billion, average growth/year is more than 5%
 Indonesian export >USD120 million
 Worls essential oil trade is more than 300 items
 Indonesia about 40 items, commercialized or
potentially
 World Major Essential Oils
approx. volume for 2007
Essential Oil Production (MT) Major Source Derivative Prod.

Orange 51,000 Brasil, USA High

Cornmint 32,000 India, China High
Lemon 9,200 Argentine, Spain High
Eucalyptus 4,000 China, India Medium
Peppermint 3,300 USA, India Medium
Citronella 1,800 China, Indonesia Medium
Clove Leaf 1,800 Indonesia, High
Madagascar
Sassafras 1,800 China High
Lime 1,800 Mexico, Low
Lavandin 1,300 France, Spain Low
Patchouli 1,200 Indonesia, China Low
Brian Lawrence- Perfumer & Flavourist v.34 January 2009
 ESTIMATED WORLD
CONSUMPTION OF THE
MAJOR ESSENTIAL OILS
 ESTIMATED WORLD
CONSUMPTION OF THE MAJOR
ESSENTIAL OILS
CONSUMER INDUSTRY WHICH USE
ESSENTIAL OILS

13%

87%
Leading producers of flavor
and fragrances
 The Essential Oil Value Chain (Flavour & Fragrance Industry)

Flavour &
Fragrance

Consumer
Essential Oil Trading End Product
Compounding Wholesaler Retailer
Production Manufacture

1.0 1.6 2-3.0 (6-9) 2-2.5 (18-24) 1.1-1.2 1.2-1.4

(19.8-28.8) (23.76-
Relative and (Absolute) Value Added Through Chain 40.32)
Small Holder Patchouli
Tea tree Industry in
Australia
 VOLATILE OILS, ESSENTIAL OILS,
ETHEREAL OILS
 Oily liquids, which are entirely or almost entirely volatile without
decomposition. Giving the odors and tastes characteristic of the
particular plant, thus possessing the essence. Ether like in
volatility
 Essential oils: plant extracts which have been achieved by steam
distillation of plant material from a single botanical source;
nothing is involved in this process save water, heat and the plant
material. The essential oil is separated from the condensed steam
 A volatile oil obtained from a wide variety of plant, scrub, and
tree species and from various parts of the plant anatomy, such as
the roots, rhizomes, wood bark, leaves, stems, fruit, flowers and
seeds. Usually extracted by hydro or steam distillation, expression
or effleurage - Hunter 1996
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Possess characteristic odors
 Liquids and volatile at ambient temp
 Soluble in common organic solvents. Sparingly
soluble in water, however sufficient to produce
aromatic water
 Specific gravity (0.8-1.17), mostly lighter than
water (clove and cinnamon are heavier)
 Have high refractive index and
most of them rotate the plane
of polarized light
COMPARISON BETWEEN
FIXED OILS AND ESSENTIAL OILS

 Their volatility
 When smeared on paper
 Oxidation (resinified, rancid)
 Chemical structure
 Saponification by KOH (not saponify)
 FUNCTION OF VOLATILE OILS
 To prevent attack by herbivores: It can render plant tissue
bitter and unpalatable
 To prevent attack from insects: mono and sesquiterpenes acting as insect
hormones to interfere with the development of the feeding insects, or having
a straightforward repellen action. The number of oil glands in a plant
increases when it is under attack
 To prevent attack by bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms
 To aid pollination by attracting bees and other insects such as moths and bats
 To help in the healing of wounds inflicted on the plant itself
 To act as an energy reserve
 To help survival in difficult growth conditions: production of allelopathic
compounds, such as 1,8-cineole and camphor
 To prevent dehydration and afford some degree of protection in hot dry
climates by surrounding the plant with a haze of volatile oil, thus helping to
prevent water loss from its foliage. Oldest plants in the world, the leaves have
10% oil by weight, is the eucalyptus, pine trees
ESSENTIAL/VOLATILE OILS
 All official volatile oils are of
vegetable origin
 Normally pre-exist in the plant
– stored in a special secretory
tissue (e.g. Citrus peel oil cells
or oil ducts in umbelliferous
fruits).
 Expressed oils: these are the
product of citrus fruits, and
they are achieved by simple
pressing (expression) of the
citrus peel, without heat or aid
of solvents
LOCALIZATION
 Essential oils and their mixtures with resins and gums are
commonly found in special secretory structures
 Exogenous secretion: Secretory structures on plant surfaces,
secrete substances directly to the outside of the plant
 Endogenous secretion : Secretory structures within plant body
and secrete substances into specialized intercellular spaces
• Oil cells and resin cells : Lauraceae (cinnamon), Zingiberaceae
(cardamom, ginger, turmeric), Piperaceae (black pepper),
Myristicaceae (nutmeg), Illiciaceae (star anise)
• Cavities, sacs, oil reservoirs (schizolysigenous): Rutaceae
(orange), Myrtaceae (clove, eucalyptus)
• Oil or resin canals, ducts: Apiaceae (dill), Pinaceae (pine,
cedarwood), Burseraceae (myrrh)
• Glandular hairs, trichomes: Lamiaceae (lavender, rosemary),
Asteraceae (elecampane), Geraniaceae (geranium)
LOCALIZATION
 Internal hairs : Orchidaceae (vanilla)
 Epidermal cells: epidermal cells of the petals found in flowers
such as roses. The amount of essential oil in flowers (Rose, Acacia,
Jasminum sp.) is very low, usually between 0.02 and 0.08% (v/w)
 Isodiametric cells: Orchid flower epidermal tissues called
osmophores secrete the volatile substances
 Stigmata: Many flowering plants also secrete volatile oils, lipids,
sugars and amino acids
 Tree buds: Such as horse chestnut, alder, poplar, cherry, and
buckthorn, secrete sticky substances (mucilages); similar tissues
also occur on the stipules and the edges of their young leaves
LOCALIZATION
DISTRIBUTION
Woods (Sandalwood) Stem bark (cinnamon) Roots (vitiver)

Rhizomes (ginger) Fruits (star anise) Seeds (nutmeg)

 May occur associated with other constituents: gums (oleogums), resins

(oleoresins) gums & resins (oleogumresins)
DISTRIBUTION
Berries Leaves Flowers
•Allspice •Basil •Cannabis
•Juniper •Bay leaf •Chamomile
•Cinnamon •Clary sage
Seeds •Common sage •Clove
•Almond •Eucalyptus •Scented geranium
•Anise •Lemon grass •Hops
•Celery •Melaleuca •Hyssop
•Cumin •Oregano •Jasmine
•Nutmeg oil •Patchouli •Lavender
•Peppermint •Manuka
Bark •Pine •Marjoram
•Cassia •Rosemary •Orange
•Cinnamon •Spearmint •Rose
•Sassafras •Tea tree •Ylang-ylang
•Thyme Peel
Wood •Wintergreen •Bergamot
•Camphor •Grapefruit
•Cedar Resin •Lemon
•Rosewood •Frankincense •Lime
•Sandalwood •Myrrh •Orange
•Agarwood •Tangerine
Root
Rhizome •Valerian
•Galangal • Vetiver
•Ginger
DECOMPOSITION
 In some cases the essential oils don’t pre-exist but
formed by decomposition of a glycoside
 Benzaldehyde (amygdalin) in bitter almond
 Allyl isothiocyanate(sinigrin) in black mustard
 Vanillin in vanilla beans
USES OF VOLATILE OILS
 Therapeutically : Eucalyptus
 Flavouring : Lemon
 Perfumery : Rose
 Starting materials to synthesize other
compounds : Turpentine
 Anti-septic – due to high phenols :
Thyme. Also as a preservative (oils
interfere with bacterial respiration)
 Anti-spasmodic : Ginger, Lemon balm,
Rosemary, Peppermint, Chamomile,
Fennel, Caraway
 Aromatherapy
DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS
 Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in
composition, consisting of the volatile principles contained
in plants, and are more or less modified during the
preparation process

 Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oils

 Steam distillation
 Expression

 4 Main types of volatile oils

 Concretes
 Pomades
 Resinoids
 Absolutes
 ESSENTIAL OILS AND PLANTS EXTRACTS
Aromatic material
of natural origin
Essential Oils Aromatic extracts

Distillation Expression
Solvent Enfleurage
Essential Oil Citrus oil
Extraction

Volatiles and waxes extracted from plant Resinoids Pomades

material with hydrocarbon solvents (usually
benzene and hexane) through washing and
removal of the volatile solvent with distillation. A
waxy aromatic substance remaining is called a
concrete. Concretes Enfleurage
The concrete is washed with alcohol to remove absolutes
the volatile materials and ethanol removed
through vacuum distillation to leave an Absolutes
absolute.
CONCRETES
 Prepared from raw materials of
vegetable origin (bark, flowers,
leafs, roots etc)
 Extracted by HC type solvents,
rather than distillation or
expression – Becomes necessary
when the essential oil is
adversely affected by hot water
or steam (eg. jasmine)
 Produces a more true-to-nature
fragrance
 Concretes contain about
50% wax and 50% essential
oil (jasmine)
 Ylang ylang (concrete
volatile) contains 80%
essential oil and 20% wax
 Advantages of concretes:
they are more stable and
concentrated than pure
essential oils
 POMADES
 True pomades are (volatile oil)
products of a process known as
enfleurage (hot or cold).

Enfleurage is used for obtaining
aromatic materials from flowers
containing volatile oils to
produce perfume long after they
were cut.
 A glass plate is covered with a
thin coating of especially
prepared and odourless fat
(called a chassis)
 The freshly cut flowers are
individually laid on to the fat
which in time becomes saturated
with their essential oils. The
flowers are renewed with fresh
material
 Eventually the fragrance-
saturated fat, known as pomade,
may be treated with alcohol to
extract the oil from the fat
 RESINOIDS
 Prepared from natural resinous  Can be viscous liquids, semi-
material (dried material) by
solid or solid
extraction with a non-aqueous
 Usually homogeneous mass
solvent, e.g. Petroleum ether or
hexane of non-crystalline character
 Balsams – Peru balsam or benzoin;  Uses: in perfumery as
resins (amber or mastic); fixatives to prolong the effect
Oleoresin (copaiba balsam and of a fragrance
turpentine); Oleogum resins
(frankincense and myrrh)
 ABSOLUTES
 Obtained from a concrete, pomade, or
a resinoid by alcoholic extraction
 The extraction process may be
repeated
 The ethanol solution is cooled &
filtered to eliminate waxes
 The ethanol is then removed by
distillation
 They are usually highly concentrated
viscous liquids