TEST

AND
MEASUREMENT

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 Loss- dB
 Fundamental Of OTDR
 Power, Laser Source Test
 Link Loss Budget

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Loss and it’s origin

Loss in optical power due to……..

Scattering
Absorption
Bending
 Micro bending
 Macro bending

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Scattering

Scattering, Primarily Rayleigh scattering, also contributes to attenuation.

Scattering causes the light energy to be dispersed in all directions, with
some of the light escaping the fiber core. A small portion of this light
energy is returned down the core and is termed “backscattering”.

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Absorption
Absorption may be defined as the conversion of light energy to
heat, and is related to the resonance in the fiber material. There
are intrinsic absorption (due to fiber material and molecular
resonance) and extrinsic absorption (due to impurities such as
OH- ions at around 1240 nm and 1390 nm).

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Bending Loss
Bending losses which are caused by light escaping the core due to
imperfections at the core/clad boundary (microbending), or the angle
of incidence of the light energy at the core/cladding boundary
exceeding the Numerical Aperture (internal angle of acceptance) of
the fiber due to bending of the fiber (macrobending).
Single mode fibers (for example) may be bent to a radius of 10 cm
with no significant losses, however after the minimum bend radius is
exceeded, losses increase exponentially with increasing radius.
Minimum bend radius is dependent on fiber design and light
wavelength.

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Example of different types of Loss

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 Input Power : Pi (w)
Loss = Pi -Po Output Power: Po (w)

Loss (dB) = 10*log10 (Pi / Po)

Loss per unit length (dB/Km) = (10/L)*log10 (Pi / Po)

What do u mean by 3dB loss?

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What is “dBm” and Why “dBm” ?

In Telecommunication transmitted power is very much

low. ( in range of “mw” to “Microwatt” ).

dBm :
It is output power in decibel (dB) for unit milliwatt input power.

Remember : 5 dBm - 4 dBm = 1 dB ( not dBm)

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What is “dBm” and Why “dBm” ?

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Optical Time Domain Reflectometer

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 Course Objectives

 Principles Of OTDR
 Block Diagram of OTDR
 Specifications of OTDR
 Using an OTDR(Operation of OTDR)

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 Principles Of OTDR
 An OTDR is a fiber optic tester characterizing fibers and optical Networks

 The aim of this instrument is to detect,locate and measure events at any

location in the fiber optic link

 An OTDR can test a fiber from only one end,that is it operates as a one
dimensional Radar System

 The OTDR technique produces geographic information with regard to

localized loss and reflective events providing a pictorial and permanent
record which may be used as a permanent baseline

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Principles Of OTDR(Contd..)
 The OTDR’s ability to characterize a fiber is based on detecting
small signals returned to OTDR in response to the injection of a
large signal

 OTDR depends on two types of Optical Phenomena:

Rayleigh Backscattering
Fresnel Reflections

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Rayleigh Scattering

 Rayleigh scattering is intrinsic to the fiber material itself and is

present all along the length of fiber

 If Rayleigh scattering is uniform along the length of fiber, then

discontinuities in the back scatter can be used to identify
anomalies in transmission along the length of fiber

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 Fresnel Reflections
 Fresnel reflections are only point events

 Fresnel reflections occur only where the fiber comes in contact

with air or any other media such as at a mechanical
connection/splice or joint

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OTDR Block Diagram

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OTDR
 Light from the source is coupled to the fiber using a coupling device

 If there are any non-linearities there will be a reflected ray from the
fiber,which is coupled to the photodiode using a coupler

 A pulse generator controls the LASER DIODE which sends powerful

light pulses to the fiber

 These pulses can have a width in the order of 2ns upto 20msec and
a reoccurrence of some KHz

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OTDR
 The duration of the pulses can be selected by the operator for
different measuring conditions(The repetition rate is limited to the
rate at which the pulse return is completed, before any other pulse
is launched

 The OTDR measures the time difference between the outgoing

pulse and the incoming backscattered pulses and hence the word
“Time Domain”

 The power level of the backscattered and reflected signal is

sampled over time

 Each measured sample is called an “Acquisition Point”

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 OTDR
 These points can be plotted on an amplitude scale with respect to
relative timing of launch pulse

 It then converts this time domain information into distance based on the
user entered index of fiber

 The RI is inversely proportional to the velocity of propogation of light in

the fiber

 OTDR uses this data to convert time to distance on the OTDR display
and divide this value by two to take round trip(or two way)into account

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Typical OTDR Trace

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Typical OTDR Trace

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Apparent Signal Gain

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OTDR Trace with Fiber Break

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OTDR Time to Distance Conversion

V(Group Delay)=c/n
C: Velocity of light in Vacuum
n: Refractive Index

OTDR Time to Distance Conversion(Round Trip):

L(Distance) = v(Group Delay) * t/2
= (c/n) * t/2

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 OTDR Specifications
 Dynamic Range

 Dead Zone

 Resolution

 Accuracy

 Wavelength

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 Dynamic Range
 Dynamic Range determines maximum observable length of a fiber
and therefore OTDR suitability for analyzing any particular network

 The higher the signal to noise ratio,and the better the trace will
be,with a better event detection

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 Dead Zone
 OTDR is designed to detect the back scattering level all along the
fiber link, it measures back scattered signals which are much
smaller than the signal sent to the fiber

 The device that receives these back scattered signals is an

OTDR, which is designed to receive a given level range

 When there is a strong reflection,then the power received by the

photodiode can be more than 4000times higher than the back
scattered power and can saturate the photodiode

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 Dead Zone

 The photodiode requires time to recover from the saturated

condition, during this time it will not detect any signal accurately

 The length of the fiber which is not characterized during recovery

is termed the dead zone

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Dead Zone

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 Sampling Resolution
 Sampling resolution is the minimum distance between two acquisition
points

 This data resolution can go down to centimeters depending on pulse

width and range

 The more data points an OTDR can acquire and process, the more
the resolution

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 Distance Resolution

 Distance resolution is very similar to sampling resolution,

if OTDR samples acquisition points every 1meter,then
only it can locate a fiber within +/- 1meter

 The distance resolution is then like sampling resolution, a

function of pulse width and range

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Attenuation vs Distance with increasing Resolution

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 Accuracy
 The accuracy of measurement is the capacity of measurement to
be compared with a reference value

 Linearity Accuracy: Determines how close an Optical level

corresponds to an electrical level across the whole range

 Distance Accuracy: Depends on the accuracy of group

index(Index of refraction refers to a single ray in a fiber,while
group index refers to propogation of all the light pulses in the
fiber)

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 Wavelength
 OTDR’s measure according to wavelength

 The major wavelengths are: 850nm, 1310nm and 1550nm A fourth

wavelength is now appearing for monitoring live systems which is
1625nm

 The wavelength is usually specified with central wavelength and spectral

width

 The attenuation of wavelength varies with wavelength, and any

measurement should be corrected to transmission wavelength or to the
central wavelength

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Using an OTDR
We can broadly define the use of OTDR in two process:

 Acquisition Step:where the unit acquires data and displays it

graphically or numerically

 Measurement Step:Where the operator analyzes the data and makes

a decision based on the results to either store,print or go to the next
acquisition

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 Acquisition
There are three major approaches to configure an OTDR:

 A user may simply let the OTDR to auto configure and accept acquisition
parameters selected by OTDR(Automatic)

 A user may allow the OTDR unit to auto configure, analyze the results and change
one or more parameters accordingly(Semi Automatic)

 A more experienced user may choose not to use auto configuration feature
altogether and enter the acquisition parameters based on his experience(Manual)

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 Acquisition Parameters
Given below are various acquisition parameters and their
effect on the resulting trace:

 Injection Level

 Wavelength

 Pulse Width

 Range

 Averaging
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 Injection Level
 Injection level is defined an the power injected into the fiber under
test,the higher this level the higher the power level

 The presence of dirt on connector faces and damaged or low quality

pig tails or patch cords are the primary cause of low injection levels

 Mating a dirty connector with a OTDR connector may scratch the

OTDR connector,degrading the OTDR launch conditions

 Some OTDRs will display the measured injection level during real
time acquisition or just prior to averaging

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 OTDR Wavelength

 A fiber must be tested with same wavelength as that used for

transmission

 For a given dynamic range 1550nm will see more distance than
1310nm

 Single mode fiber has more mode field diameter at 1550nm that
at 1310nm

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 OTDR Wavelength
•1550nm is more sensitive bends than 1310nm(as shown in the graph
below)

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 Pulse Width
 The OTDR pulse width controls the amount of light that
will be injected into the fiber(It is the time for which the
Laser is on and determines the resolution of waveform)

 Longer the pulse width, more light is injected into the fiber

 Longer pulse widths also produce longer dead zones in the

OTDR trace waveform where the measurements are
impossible

 Short pulse widths inject lower levels of light but reduce

dead zone
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 Pulse Width
 By reducing the pulse width, there is a reduction in the dead zone of the fiber,compared to
that of a larger pulse width and also an increase

 But with the reduction in the pulse width, there is a reduction in the dynamic range, a
reduction in the sensitivity of the receiver and also the distance

 By proper selection of pulse width we can optimize the use of OTDR for making fiber
measurements

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 Range

 Range of an OTDR is the distance over which it can acquire data

samples

 The longer this parameter the more distance OTDR will shoot the
pulses

 This parameter is generally set to twice the distance of the end of fiber

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 Averaging
 The OTDR detector works with extremely low optical power levels(as
low as 100 photons per meter of fiber)

 Averaging is the process by which each acquisition point is sampled

repeatedly and the results averaged to improve signal to noise ratio

 Averaging can be done by selecting the time of acquisition or the

number of averages, the longer the time or higher the number of
averages,the more signal the trace waveform will display in random
noise conditions

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 Modes Of Operation Of OTDR
Free Run Mode(Real Time):

 It continually sends laser pulses down the fiber under test and
obtains back scatter

 This mode is useful for optimizing fiber alignment

 The waveforms obtained in free run mode contain unacceptable

amounts of noise making it impossible to determine small
attenuation changes such as non-reflective splices

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Eagle Photonics
Noise in Free Run Mode

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Modes of Operation of OTDR
Averaging Mode:

 In the averaging mode each pulses are averaged from that of

preceding pulses which makes the trace appear clear for each of the
succeeding pulses

 The number of samples that are to be averaged is predefined for an

OTDR

 The larger the number, the longer the OTDR takes for displaying the
results

 Recent OTDR specifies their averaging in terms of time taken for

display, instead of number of samples
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TESTS PERFORMED USING OTDR

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 Acceptance Test

Acceptance of fiber uses OTDR(TO measure loss per km):

 This loss measurement is wavelength dependent, so the OTDR is set

to the wavelength which matches with the fiber systems operating
wavelength

 When using an OTDR to make any measurement it is critical to

correctly place reference markers so that the OTDR can display the
loss & distance between them

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 Loss and Span Length
 This test has to be conducted in averaging mode, when ever we choose
averaging mode a trace will be displayed

 To make any measurements it is critical to correctly place reference

markers so that OTDR can display loss and distance between them

 For making this measurement,a trace is obtained on OTDR in real time

mode

 Place the reference markers accurately, first reference marker is placed

exactly where the back scatter starts,that is beyond dead zone(correct
point is on the trailing edge of the

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 Span Loss and Span Length
 Then move the cursor to end of the trace and place the second
marker before the Refractive fiber end , the correct point is where
the slope starts increasing faster than the normal slope of the trace

 To exactly locate these reference markers use the horizontal and

vertical zoom controls

 Now choose the averaging mode and the display gives us the loss
per span and the span length

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Attenuation of Splice or Connector

 OTDR can be used to measure splice or connector loss, in order to

do this a marker is placed on either of the aberration of the OTDR
trace

 OTDR will then display the attenuation between the two points

 The vertical separation of the two marker points is the attenuation of

the splice or the connector

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 Attenuation of Fusion Splice
 Fusion splice has a loss value which is very negligible,so to
accurately measure this value the OTDR is used in averaging
mode

 To measure the loss value,first amplify the slope the of the OTDR
trace and then place the two reference points on either side of
the aberration

 To accurately place the markers use horizontal and vertical zoom

controls

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 Automatic Operation
 In two cursor method, sometimes the cursor might not have been
placed properly and the OTDR also adds some losses and there by
increasing the loss value

 For short distance applications the effect is negligible,but becomes

highly pronounced for long haul

 Fortunately, most OTDRs have the provision to perform automatically

 That is, in averaging mode the OTDR displays the splice loss as well as
the connector loss systematically on the trace

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 Ghost Reflections

 Sometimes there will be Fresnel reflection at points where it is

not expected-usually after end of fiber,this usually happens when
large reflection occurs in a short fiber

 The reflected light actually bounces back and forth within a

fiber,causing one or more false reflections to show up at multiple
distances from the initial large reflection

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 Ghost Reflections
 Another type of ghosting happens when you set the range shorter
than the actual length of the fiber

 This allows OTDR to send additional pulses of light into the fiber
before all the backscatter and reflections from the first pulse have
cleared the whole fiber

 When more than one pulse in the fiber at one time,a condition will be
setup where returned light from different pulses arrive at the OTDR at
the same time producing “Unpredictable results”

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 Ghost Reflections
Ghost Busting Techniques used to determine if ghosts are
occurring and eliminate them:

 Measure the distance of the suspect reflection,then place a cursor

half this distance on the fiber if an expected reflection is at half way
mark,then the suspect is probably Ghost

 Suppress or reduce the known(true)reflection,by making the

amount of reflected power smaller, the ghost will also be
reduced .To reduce the reflection, index matching gel at the
reflection, or reduce the amount of power going to the reflective
point by selecting a shorter pulse width
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 Ghost Reflection
Ghost Busting Techniques used to determine if ghosts are occurring and
eliminate them:

 Change the distance Range(Display Range)of the OTDR.In some

OTDRs,a ghost is caused when the Distance Range is too short
Increase the Range setting and ghost may disappear

 If a ghost seems to occur in the fiber,then measure the loss across the
suspected reflection.A ghost will show no loss across it when you do a
splice loss measurement

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Observations & Conclusion

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Observations & Conclusion

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Various Instruments used for Fiber Testing
(Power Meter,Laser Source,OTDR etc…)

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EIA / TIA Standards defining standardized fiber
optic test procedures

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Power, Laser Source Test

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OTDR can measure loss then why we measure
the loss with Power meter and Laser source again?

The most accurate way to measure overall attenuation in a fiber is to

inject a known level of light in one end and measure the level when it
comes out the other end.

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Measurement of Loss in a Fiber using a LASER
Source and a Power Meter

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BER Test Using a VOA

To measure BER of a Optical Receiver,a VOA is used

along with a BER Transmitter

As the attenuation increases, a technician can see the

value of attenuation that causes a significant increase in
the BER of the receiver

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Link Loss Budget

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 What is Link Budget?

Computation of all the losses that comes into

account from the source node to the destination
node taking into account all the losses is called link
budgeting for that particular link

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Losses….
• General Losses:
- Fiber Loss
- Total connector loss
- Total Splice loss

• Specific Losses:
- Total other component loss
- Manufacturer’s Specifications
- Total power penalties

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 General Losses(Typical Values)
•Fiber Loss
 Attenuation for 1310nm:0.3dB/km(G.652)
 Attenuation for 1550nm:0.25dB/km
 Largely due to impurities and imperfections
in the glass of the fiber

•Connector Loss
 Connections at the termination points of fiber,patch panels in a site, Optical
cross connects(OXC)
Conservative estimate is 0.5dB/connection

•Splice Loss
Splices due to construction and repair
Conservative estimate is 0.1dB/splice

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Span Loss Analysis

 Compares the allowable span loss for equipment against

the total losses of the span.

 The allowable span loss is the Transmit Power minus

the Receive Power Level.

 The total losses on the span is the sum of all attenuation

due to fiber,connections,splices and other factors.

 If the total span loss does not exceed the allowable span
loss the system should work on this span.

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Computation of Span Loss Margin
Total losses = (fiber length* loss/km) +
(connector loss* No. of connectors) +
(No. of Splices)*(loss/splice) +
(loss due to components) + other losses

Span loss Allowed = Tx power - Receiver sensitivity

Span loss Margin = Total losses - Span loss

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Link Budget

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Attenuation/Span Loss Example...

Tx Rx
0.5 dB 0.5 dB 0.5 dB
Tx Output Rx input
+0.5 dBm needed -25
dBm
22km @ .25dB / km 37km @ .25dB/km
= 5.5dB =9.25 dB

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 Attenuation/Span Loss Example...

Total Attenuation: Span Loss Analysis:

Tx Power : 0.5dBm
Connector: 1.5dB Rx Sensitivity : -25dBm
Fiber1: 5.5dB Available for span: 25.5dB
Fiber2: 9.25dB Available for span: 25.5dB
Splices: 0.9dB Attenuation on span: 21.25dB
Total 21.25dB Span Loss Margin: 4.25dB

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Signal/Noise Ratio

Signal is the information carrying optical pulse,Noise is the

optical “static”created in the system

Optical amplifiers amplify both signal and noise

 If the signal travels long enough and through enough

amplifiers,the noise will overwhelm the signal

 This limits the number of consecutive amplifiers in an

amplifier based system,before an optical-electrical-optical
conversion is needed to restore the signal to clean low-noise
pulse
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