Unit-II

Signal Conditioning
Presentation Outline

 Introduction

 Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

 Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

 Applications

 Exercise
What is an Op-Amp?
 An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-Amp”) is an
integrated circuit that sets an output voltage based on the
input voltages provided.
 In a circuit, it is used to perform an operation and an
amplification where the operation may be add, subtract,
filter, integrate, differentiate, etc.
 Op-Amps are composed of transistors, resistors,
capacitors, and diodes.
Brief History
1941: Karl Swartzel of Bell Labs
developed the first Op-Amp.
 Used 3 vacuum tubes, only one input (inverting), and operated on + 350 V to
achieve 90 dB gain.

1947: Loebe Julie developed the Op-Amp as it is known today, with two inputs
– inverting and non-inverting.
 The differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible.

1953: First commercially available Op-Amp.

 George A. Philbrick Researches (GAP-R). GAP-R pioneered the first
reasonable-cost, mass-produced operational amplifier

1961: Advent of solid-state, discrete Op-Amps.

 Made possible by the invention of the silicon transistor, which led to the
concept of Integrated Circuits (IC)
 Reduced power input to ±15V to ±10V

1962: Op-Amp in a potted module.

 Packaging in small black boxes allowed for integration with a circuit
Brief History
 1963: First monolithic IC Op-Amp, the
μA702, designed by Bob Widlar at Fairchild
Semiconductor.
 Monolithic ICs consist of a single chip

 1968: Release of the μA741

 The μA741 became the canonical Op-Amp, from
which many modern op-amps base their pinout
from, and is still in production today.
Parameter Range
Frequency Spectrum 5-kHz to beyond 1-GHz GBW
Supply Voltage 0.9 V to a maximum 1000 V
Input Offsets Approximately Zero
Presentation Outline

 Introduction

 Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

 Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

 Applications

 Exercise
Basic Op-Amp (Open-Loop)



 : positive power supply
 : negative power supply

 : non-inverting input terminal

 : inverting input terminal

 : output terminal
 , , are all referenced to ground
 Ideal Op-Amp
Parameter Name Symbol Value
 impedance
Input  
Output
Output impedance
impedance
Open-loop
Open-loop gain
gain
Bandwidth
Bandwidth

 Temperature-independent.

 The maximum output voltage value is the supply voltage (saturation):



 What this means:

 Current flow into the op-amp from either input terminal is zero.

 Differential voltage between the two input terminals is zero.

 Real Op-Amp
Parameter Name Symbol Value
 
Input impedance
Output
Output impedance
impedance
Open-loop gain
Open-loop gain
Bandwidth Hz
Bandwidth

 Operating temperature range:

 Commercial:
 Industrial:
 Military:
 Saturation
Vout 
 Saturation
  results when the output
voltage is equal to the power supply’s
Vsat+ voltage
 In typical op-amps, the saturation level is
Slope = G about 80% of the supply voltage.

Vin
 Positive Saturation Cutoff:

Vsat-
 Linear Mode:

Saturation  Negative Saturation Cutoff:

Cutoff Points

Presentation Outline

 Introduction

 Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

 Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

 Applications

 Exercise
Open Loop vs. Closed Loop

 A closed-loop op-amp has feedback from the

output back to one of the inputs, whereas an
open-loop op-amp does not.

Open-Loop Closed-Loop
Negative vs. Positive Feedback
 Negative feedback connects the output to the inverting input
(-), whereas positive feedback connects the output to the non-
inverting input (+).

Negative Feedback Positive Feedback

Negative vs. Positive: Output
 Negative feedback op-amps can produce any voltage in the
supply power range.
 Positive feedback op-amps can only produce the maximum
and minimum voltages of the range.
Vout Vout
Vsat+ Vsat+

Vin Vin

Vsat- Vsat-

Negative Feedback Positive Feedback

Inverting Op-Amp

 Functionality:
  to amplify the input voltage to output
voltage with a negative gain.

 
𝐼
Non-Inverting Op-Amp

 Functionality:
  to amplify the input voltage to output
voltage with a positive gain.

 
𝐼
Integrating Op-Amp

 Functionality:
  takes the summation of input voltages
over time and provides that as the output signal


𝐼 (𝑡)
 
=

Derivative Op-Amp

 Functionality:
  takes the rate of change of the
inverted input voltage signal and provides that as
the output signal
 Differential Op-Amp

 Functionality: takes the difference
 
between two signals and provides
that as the output

 If :

 Moreover, if :
 Summing Op-Amp

 Functionality: takes the sum of two or more input
 voltages and provides an output voltage
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum

 If :

 Moreover, if :

 By setting , the summing op-amp can be used as

an averaging operator:
Presentation Outline

 Introduction

 Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

 Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

 Applications

 Exercise
Applications

 Active filters
 Signal processing
 Digital Image processing
 Strain gauges
 Control circuits
 PID controllers for aircraft
 PI controllers for temperature measurement circuitry
 And much more…
Low-Pass Filter High-Pass Filter
    Attenuates frequencies below
 Attenuates
  frequencies above
the cutoff frequency. the cutoff frequency.
 Cutoff frequency (Hz):  Cutoff frequency (Hz):

 Gain in the passband:

 Gain in the passband:
Bandpass Filter Notch Filter
Strain Gauge
 Strain gauges consist of a pattern of

resistive foil mounted on a backing

material.
 As the foil is subjected to stress, the

resistance of the foil changes in a defined

way.
 This results in an output signal directly

related to the stress value, typically a few

millivolts.
 Op-Amps are utilized to amplify the output

signal level to 5~10 V, a suitable level for

application to data collection systems.
PID Controller

 A  proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is a generic feedback
mechanism widely used in industrial control systems.
 It calculates an “error” value as the difference between a measured process
variable and a desired setpoint.
 Using this error, it calculates a control input using tuning parameters , , and to
drive the error to zero.
PID Controller

 So
  where do op-amps come in?
 The error is calculated using a Summing Op-Amp.
 Using this error voltage:
▪ The derivative of the error is calculated using a Derivative Op-Amp.
▪ The integral of the error is calculated using an Inverting Op-Amp.
 The tuning parameters , , and can be selected by
appropriate selection of resistors and capacitors.
And much more…

 Comparators
 Detectors
 Threshold detector
 Zero-level detector
 Oscillators
 Wien bridge oscillator
 Relaxation oscillator
 Level shifters
Presentation Outline

 Introduction

 Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

 Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

 Applications

 Exercise
Exercise


Consider the circuit above running for 5 seconds. Find
 
when:

 ,,,
References
 Cetinkunt, Sabri. Mechatronics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007.
 Jung, Walter G. Op Amp Applications Handbook. Analog Devices, Inc., 2005.
 “Operational Amplifier.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier .
 “Operational Amplifier Applications.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier_applications.
 “The Strain Gauge.”
http://web.deu.edu.tr/mechatronics/TUR/strain_gauge.htm.
 “The PID Controller.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PID_controller.
 “Feedback in Electronic Circuits: An Introduction.”
http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen4827/lectures/dm_feedback1.pdf.
 “Differentiator and Integrator Circuits”
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_8/11.html.
 “Inverting Op-Amp”
http://www.wiringdiagrams21.com/2009/12/17/basic-inverting-op-amp-circuit
-diagram/
The End

Questions?