Encoding

Objectives
 Understand basic encoding schemes
 Understand basic framing schemes
 Know bit stuffing
 Ethernet lab introduction
 Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

Bits 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ

 Problem: Consecutive 1s or 0s
 Low signal (0) may be interpreted as no signal
 High signal (1) leads to baseline wander
 Unable to recover clock
 NRZI and Manchester
 Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI): Make
a transition from the current signal to
encode a one, and stay at the current signal
to encode a zero;
– solves the problem of consecutive ones.
 Manchester: Transmits the XOR of the
NRZ encoded data and the clock; only 50%
efficient.
 Example
Manchester encoding allows the clocks to be synchronized
NRZI eliminates consecutive 1s and baseline wander
Consecutive zeros can still make it difficult to recover clock

Bits 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ

Clock

Mancester

NRZI
 4B/5B
 Problem: consecutive zeros
 Idea: Every 4 bits of data is encoded in a 5-bit
code, with the 5-bit codes selected to have no
more than one leading 0 and no more than two
trailing 0 (i.e., never get more than three
consecutive 0s).
 Resulting 5-bit codes are then transmitted using
the NRZI encoding. Achieves 80% efficiency.
 We already dealt with consecutive 1s with NRZI
 4B/5B
 At most one zero on each 4-Bit 5-Bit 4-Bit 5-Bit
code code code code
end 0000 11110 1000 10010
0001 01001 1001 10011
 data 0010 10100 1010 10110
0011 10101 1011 10111
– 1111 1000 0011 1101 0100 01010 1100 11010

 4B/5B 0101 01011 1101 11011

0110 01110 1110 11100
– 11101 10010 10101 11011 0111 01111 1111 11101

 NRZI
– 0 10110 11100 11001 01101
Framing
 Overview
 Problem: Breaking sequence of bits into a
frame
 Must determine first and last bit of the
frame
 Typically implemented by network adapter
 Adapter fetches (deposits) frames out of
(into) host memory
 Four Approaches
 Clock Based
– fixed length frames, high reliability required
 Sentinels
– Special character to delineate frames, replace
character in data stream
 Character Count
– Frame length at certain position in frame
 Physical layer invalid codes
– requires physical layer redundancy
 Byte-Oriented Protocols
 Sentinel Approach
– PPP protocol uses 0x7e=01111110 as the flag byte
to delimit a frame
– When a 0x7e is seen in the payload, it must be
escaped to keep it from being seen as an end of
frame

8 8 8 14 16 8
Addr

Cont
Flag

Prot Payload Checksum Flag

 PPP Escape Character
– To escape a character first send the escape
character '}'. Then send the character to be
escaped XORed with 001000002. To escape '~',
send the escape character '}' followed by the
ASCII value of '~' (011111102) XORed with
001000002.
 Bit-Oriented Protocols
 HDLC: High-Level Data Link Control (also
SDLC and PPP)

 Delineate frame with a special bit-sequence:

01111110
8 16 16 8
Beginning Ending
Sequence Header Body CRC Sequence
Bit Stuffing
 Sender: any time five consecutive 1s have
been transmitted from the body of the
message, insert a 0.
 Receiver: should five consecutive 1s arrive,
look at next bit(s):
– if next bit is a 0: remove it
– if next bits are 10: end-of-frame marker
– if next bits are 11: error
State Machine

0
1
0

1
0

1
0

1
0

1
Insert 0
 Bit stuffing Example
 Original Data
– 001111111000011111100
 Bit Stuffed
– 00111110110000111110100
 Receiver
– 0011111011000011111010001111110

End of Frame
Ethernet
 Overview
 History
– Developed by Xerox PARC in mid-1970s
– Roots in Aloha packet-radio network
– Standardized by Xerox, DEC, and Intel in 1978
– Similar to IEEE 802.3 standard
– Manchester encoding, synchronous
transmission
 Frame Format

Addresses:
 Unique, 48-bit unicast address assigned to
each adaptor
 Example: 8:0:2b:e4:b1:2
 Broadcast: all 1s
 Multicast: first bit is 1
 Reading
"GIVE ATTENDANCE TO READING"
by Brad Wilcox, Associate Professor, Brigham Young
University

Have you ever read a book and then seen a movie made from
the book? Were you disappointed? Most people are.
That's because reading is a mentally active experience
while watching TV or movies is a mentally passive one.
When we watch TV or a video, we do not have to imagine
the setting. It is shown to us. We do not have to
imagine what the main characters look like. They are
shown to us. We do not even have to imagine the
kissing scenes because--like it or not--those are shown
to us too. On the other hand, reading allows us to use
our brains and become involved intellectually.
 Reading
If you are a reader you are following Paul's counsel to
"give attendance to reading" in your youth (1 Timothy
4:13). Keep up the great work.
Keep reading magazines, newspapers, cereal boxes, bumper
stickers--anything you can get your eyes on. Keep reading
good books--famous ones, fun ones, sad ones, spiritual
ones.
Keep reading and you will come to understand why the
comedian Groucho Marx once said,
"Outside of a dog, man's best friend is a book; inside of
a dog, it's too dark to read.“
This applies in particular to the CS460 Book.
Make it your friend.