The Art of Problem-

Solving
“Mathematics consists in proving the most obvious thing
in the least obvious way.”
-George Polya
 OBJECTIVES
• Gain an understanding of the key concepts of problem
and problem-solving;
• Differentiate routine from non routine problems;
• Discuss the problem-solving framework;
• Illustrate the different heuristic methods in solving the
non routine problems; and
• Model appropriate problem-solving strategies.
 TERMS
• Problem-solving: the skill of finding a way out of a difficulty, a way
around an obstacle, attaining an aim, which is not immediately
attainable (Polya, 1957).
• Problem: a situation that needs to be resolved, but no solution is
readily apparent.
Mathematical problems may be classified into:
-Routine problems: can be solved using methods that are
familiar or by replicating previously learned methods in a
step-by-step fashion.
-Non-routine problems: have no predictable, well-rehearsed
approach that is explicitly outlined or worked-out.
 -Practical ways, methods, or approaches that help in
discovering the best and most efficient or most
effective means of solving problems.
Steps:
HEURISTIC
1.Using formula or mathematical functions or models
METHODS
2.Looking for patterns
3.Solving a simpler problem
4.Working backward
5.Using analogies or logical reasoning
6.Drawing or acting out the situations
7.Guess and check
8.Making a list or tables
 INDUCTIVE AND DEDEUCTIVE REASONING

• Deductive reasoning: the process of reaching a conclusion by

applying general assumptions, procedures or principles to specific
statements through a logical thought process.

• Inductive reasoning: the process of reaching a general conclusion

by examining specific examples. The conclusion formed using
inductive reasoning is called conjecture which may or may not be
true. One precaution is that true conclusion is not guaranteed
when using inductive reasoning.
 Example 1:
Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture, that the
following produces a number that is four times the original
DEDUCTIVE number.
REASONING
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, then subtract by 3.
 SOLUTION:

Let n represent the original number

•Original number: n
•Multiply by 8: 8n
•Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
•Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6) / 2 = 4n + 3
•Subtract by 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
produces a number that is four times the original number.
 Example 2
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure
produces a number that is three times the original number.
Procedure:
Pick a number n. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.

Hint: Let n represent the original number.

 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number:
1.3, 6, 9, 12, 15,___
INDUCTIVE 2.1, 3, 6, 10, 15,___
RASONING: SOLUTIONS:
EXAMPLES 1.18 (3 is added to the following number)
2.21 (the difference between two consecutive
numbers is 1 more than the preceding number)
 Using inductive reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the

number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers.
Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.
 Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would
produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46/2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20.
Starting with 6 as our original number produces a final result of 24. Starting
with 10 produces a final result of 40. In each of these cases the resulting
number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the
given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
 Use Inductive Reasoning to find a Solution

A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake. The height of a

tsunami as it approaches land depends on the velocity of the tsunami. Use the table
below and inductive reasoning to answer the given questions.

Velocity of tsunami, in feet per second Height of tsunami, in feet

6 4
9 9
12 16
15 25
18 36
21 49

a.What happens to 24
the height of a tsunami when velocity64is doubled?
b.What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
 Counterexamples

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect.

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases. If you can find one case for which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.
Illustrations:
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement
by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. x  0 b. x  x C. x  x
2 2
 Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find
one counterexample to verify that the statement is false.
a.Let x  0 . Then 0  0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found
a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers  0false statement.
x“, isx a

b.For we have . Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a

x 1
counterexample. Thus,  1 all numbers
12 “for “ is a false statement.
x, x 2  x
c.Consider . Then . Since 3 is not equal to – 3, we have
x  3
found a counterexample.   3 2 “for
Thus, 9 all
3 numbers “ is a false
statement. 2
x, x  x
 Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a.During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other
year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the
tree will produce plums.
b.All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The
contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost
$35,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than
$35,000.
 Solution:
a. This argument reaches to a conclusion based on
specific examples, so it is an example of inductive
reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general
assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.
 EXERCISES
A. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next term in the list.
a. 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, ___
b. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ___
c. 70, 60, 51, 43, 36, 30, ___
d. 2, 7, -3, 2, -8, -3, -13, -8, ___
e. ___
3 5 7 9
, , , ,
5 inductive
B. Use 7 9 11reasoning to decide whether each statement is correct.
a. The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
b. The product of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
c. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide the
sum by 2. Subtract 4 from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the original number.

C. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure

a. always produces a number that is equal to the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6 and add 8. Divide the number by 2,
subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.
b. always produces the number 5.
Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and multiply the sum by 3. Subtract 7 and
then decrease this difference by the triple of the original number.
D. Find a number that provides a counterexample to show that the given statement is false.
a. For all numbers .
1 .
b. For all numbers x, x 
c. For all numbers x .
x, x  3  x  3
E. Determine whether the x argument
 1 x  1 is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning.
x,  x 1
a.All pentagons have exactly xfive
 1 sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A has
exactly five sides.
b.Emma enjoyed reading the novel Finders Keepers by Stephen King, so she will enjoy
reading his next novel.
c.Cats don’t eat tomatoes. Tigger is a cat. Therefore, Tigger does not eat tomatoes.
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