Rekabentuk Campuran

– Kaedah Campuran(Mixed Method)

– Kajian Tindakan (Action Research)
– Design Development Research
Penggunaan rekabentuk campuran

Menggabungkan data kuantitatif Menggunakan data kuantitatif dan

dan kualitatif untuk lebih kualitatif untuk mengkaji masalah
memahami dan pendidikan yang dihadapi dalam
menerangkan masalah kajian setting mereka

Kajian Kaedah Kajian Tindakan

Campuran (Action Research)
(Mixed Method)
Mixed Method
 Mixed method offers advantage by the combination of quantitative and qualitative
approaches (Creswell, 2009).
 Combining qualitative and quantitative research can be as a mechanism for validating
survey data; interpreting statistical relationships and deciphering puzzling response; to help
construct scales and indices for survey items; and offering case study illustration.
 Mixed method approach linked back to the pragmatism philosophy which believes that the
truth is what work which quantitative and qualitative method are compatible and there are
lot of similarities in the fundamental values to enable a partnership, such as “belief in the
value-laden of inquiry, belief in the theory-laden of facts, belief that reality is multiple and
constructed, belief in the fallibility of knowledge, and belief in the under termination of
theory by fact (Tashakkori, 1998).
 Mixed method research is giving the researcher an opportunity in choosing and re-
evaluating the research questions suitable with the research problems.
Typical situations in which
mixed methods is used…
 To compare results from quantitative and qualitative research
 To use qualitative research to help explain quantitative findings
 To explore using qualitative research and then to generalize findings to a large
population using quantitative research
 To develop an instrument because none are available or useful
 To augment an experiment with qualitative data
What is the reason for
using mixed methods?
 The insufficient argument – either quantitative or qualitative may be insufficient by itself
 Multiple angles argument – quantitative and qualitative approaches provide different
“pictures”
 The more-evidence-the-better argument – combined quantitative and qualitative
provides more evidence
 Community of practice argument – mixed methods may be the preferred approach
within a scholarly community
 Eager-to-learn argument – it is the latest methodology
 “Its intuitive” argument – it mirrors “real life”
 Types of Mixed Method

Design Name Equal priority QUAN emphasis QUAL emphasis

Concurrent, triangulation QUAL+QUAN QUAN+qual QUAL+quan

Concurrent, embedded n/a QUAN(qual) QUAL(quan)

Sequential Explanatory
(quan first) QUAN QUAL QUAN qual Quan QUAL
Sequential Exploratory
(qual first) QUAL QUAN Qual QUAN QUAL quan

Sequential, embedded n/a (qual) QUAN (quan) QUAL

QUAN (qual) QUAL (quan)

 Mixing the QUAN and QUAL data
Type of Mixing Type of Design Why Mixing Occurs Where Mixing Occurs in
Research Process

Connecting Sequential One phase builds on the Between data analysis

other (Phase 1) and data
collection (Phase 2)

Merging Concurrent Bring results together After analysis of both

quan and qual –
typically in discussion

Embedding Sequential or Either building or Either between phases

Concurrent bringing results together or in discussion after
analysis
 The Sequential Exploratory Design (Instrument
Development)

QUAL QUAN

QUAL QUAL QUAL QUAN QUAN QUAN Interpretation

Instrument
Data Data Findings Data Data Result QUAL to QUAN
Development
Collection Analysis Collection Analysis results
Procedures Procedures
• Developed survey instrument • Discuss and interpret
based on qualitative findings what was learned
• Pilot-tested survey instrument overall
• Use qualitative
quotes to validate and
illustrate quantitative
result
 The Sequential Exploratory Design (to Generate and Test
a Model)

QUAL QUAN

QUAL QUAL QUAL Use model to QUAN QUAN Interpretation

Data Data Results generate Data Result QUAL to QUAN
Collection Analysis hypotheses Analysis results
Procedures
Procedures Procedures Procedures
• Develop discrete
• Multivariate • Report • Discuss and interpret
choice models based
analysis statistic what was learned
on qualitative
(multinomial logit al result overall
conceptual model
models) to test • Use qualitative
hypotheses quotes to validate and
QUAN illustrate quantitative
Data result
Collection
 The Sequential Explanatory Design

QUAN QUAL

Identify
QUAN QUAN QUAN result that QUAL QUAL QUAL Interpretation
Data Data Results needs to be Data Data Result QUAN to QUAL
Collection Analysis further Collection Analysis results
explained
Procedures
Procedures • Synthesize two set
• Identify major quantitative of findings in one
finding as context for discussion section
qualitative study
• Generate research questions
• Identify participants
 Concurrent Mixed Method
Design with Merged Results
QUAN QUAL
Data Collection Data Collection

QUAN QUAL
Data Analysis Data Analysis

QUAN QUAL
Result Result

MERGE
Procedures Products
QUAN+QUAL • Discussion of QUAN and QUAL
• Compare QUAN and QUAL results
and interpret results
 Concurrent Mixed Methods design
with Data Transformation

QUAN QUAN
Data Collection Data Analysis

Analysed QUAN + INTERPRET

Quantified QUAL QUAN+QUAL
Combined Analysis Procedures
QUAL • Statistically • Discuss and interpret
QUAL QUAL significant differences
compare
Data Collection Data Analysis transformation in the quantified data
quantitative groups
in terms of scores • Evaluate procedures
Transform QUAL Data and methods
from quantified
• Develop
qualitative results
theoretical model
of responses
• Apply model to
score each
responses
 Embedded Experimental
Before-Intervention

QUAL Implement revised QUAN

Before Intervention recruitment procedures experiment
 Embedded Experimental
During – Intervention
QUANTITATIVE EXPERIMENT Interpret
Control Group QUAN (qual)
Baseline Waiting List 1 3 6 12 findings
Months Timeline
Intervention Group (example)

Baseline 4-weeks intervention 1 3 6 12

Months

Baseline 4-weeks intervention Timeline

(example)
QUALITATIVE STUDY
 Embedded Experimental
After-Intervention Design

Identify
Interpret QUAN
QUAN EXPERIMENT ambiguous and QUAL after
and QUAL
Pre test Program Intervention Post test unexpected Intervention
result
QUAN result
 Methodological issues
 Concurrent Designs
 Use strategies to explore contradictory
findings
 Use parallel questions
 Select sub-sample of quantitative for
qualitative
 Be sensitive to bias from one data
collection to the other
 Sequential designs
 In Explanatory Design, select qual sub-
sample from quan sample
 In Explanatory Design, consider alternatives
for follow up qual sampling
 In Exploratory Design, samples can differ
 In Exploratory Instrument Design, consider
qual data analysis approaches for
developing instrument
 Langkah-langkah penyelidikan dalam kajian kuantitatif dan kualitatif

Langkah dalan proses penyelidikan

Pendekatan Rekabentuk kajian
kuantitatif
Mnegenal pasti masalah kualitatif
kuantitatif
Tinjauan literatur
kualitatif •Eksperimen
•Korelasi
kuantitatif
Menentukan tujuan •Tinjauan
kualitatif
kuantitatif
Mengumpul data •Campuran
kualitatif
•Tindakan
kuantitatif
Analisa dan tafsir Data
kualitatif •Ethnography
•Grounded Theory
kuantitatif
Melapor dan menilai •Narrative
kualitatif
 KAJIAN TINDAKAN
(ACTION RESEARCH)
 What Is Action Research?
Action research is systematic inquiry
done by teachers (or other
individuals in an educational setting)
to gather information about, and
subsequently improve, the ways
their particular educational setting
operates, how they teach, and how
well their students learn (Mills,
2000).
Action research as “Any systematic
inquiry conducted by teacher
researchers, principals, school
counselors, or other stake-holders in
the teaching/learning environment
to gather information about how
their particular schools operate,
how they teach, and how well their
students learn” (Mills, 2000).
 Definisi Penyelidikan Tindakan
– “Research is systematic self-critical inquiry” atau ‘penyelidikan adalah suatu
inkuiri kendiri yang kritis yang sistematik (British Journal of Educational
Studies, 29(2) Jun 1981.

– PT pula adalah inkuiri berbentuk renungan kendiri yang dilakukan dalam

situasi sosial, bertujuan untuk memperbaiki amalan-amalan dalam konteks
sosial dan pendiidkan.
– Beberapa definisi telah diberikan oleh pakar-pakar kajian tindakan seperti:
Kemmis & McTaggart (1988); Ebbut (1985); McNiff (1988); Somekh (1989);
Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1990); Kember & Gow (1992) & McBride & Schostak
(1994).
– McBride & Schostak (1994): Penyelidikan tindakan merupakan refleksi
mengenai pengajaran sendiri yang dilakukan dalam satu putaran
perubahan, dan fokus utama penyelidikan tindakan adalah dalam
memperbaiki amalan.
 How Action Research Developed

Teacher and school inquiries

(teacher-initiated
2000s
research studies)

1990s School-based
Professional inquiry by
site councils
teachers (self-study)
(school
1980s committees)

1970s In-service days (teacher

staff-development activities)

Movement Toward Action Research

PENYELIDIKAN TINDAKAN

– Diperkenalkan oleh Kurt Lewin pada tahun 1946

– Mendapat perhatian rakan-rakan sekerja seperti Stephen Corey, Kenneth
Benne dan Hilda Taba (Teachers College, University of Columbia) bagi
menjalankan penyelidikan pendidikan mengenai penggubalan kurikulum
dan peningkatan profesionalisme perguruan.
– Idea ini berkembang luas sehingga akhir tahun 1950an.
– Pada tahun-tahun 1970an, penyelidikan tindakan mula mendapat
perhatian antarabangsa.
– Di UK, idea penyelidikan tindakan timbul semula melalui usaha
Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) yang memperkenalkan konsep guru sebagai
penyelidik dan melihat penyelidikan tindakan sebagai satu elemen
penting dalam perkembangan kurikulum.

– Menurut Stenhouse, penglibatan aktif guru dalam proses penyelidikan

adalah suatu faktor penting yang boleh membawa kepada pembaharuan
kurikulum.
– Contoh PT: Ford Teaching Project (John Elliott, 1974-76), menyiasat
penggunaan kaedah pengajaran pembelajaran inkuiri.
– Elliott seterusnya mengasaskan Classroom Research Network (CARN) untuk
menyokong guru-guru yang terlibat dalam Ford Teaching Project.
– Konsep PT kemudian mula meresap ke dalam sistem pendidikan Malaysia.
– Salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan profesionalisme perguruan ialah
dengan menjalankan penyelidikan tindakan terhadap amalan-amalan
pengajaran pembelajaran.
Bilakah anda perlu menjalankan kajian
tindakan?

– Pendidik menghadapi masalah pendidikan yang perlu

diselesaikan
– Pendidik ingin membuat refleksi terhadap amalan sendiri
(seperti PnP)
– Pendidik ingin menyelesaikan masalah yang berlaku di
sekolah
– Guru mahu memperbaiki amalan sendiri (PnP)
– Pendidik mahu terlibat dalam sesuatu projek
penyelidikan
 TUJUAN PENYELIDIKAN TINDAKAN

1. Membantu guru menghadapi cabaran.

2. Menyelesaikan masalah profesional tanpa merujuk
arahan luar.
3. Mengeluarkan guru dari kongkongan amalan rutin.
4. Memberi kuasa (empowerment) untuk membuat
keputusan dalam bilik darjah.
5. Menggalakkan guru berkongsi pengalaman.
6. Menjadi agen perubahan.
 Objektif Penyelidikan Tindakan

a. Mengembang dan memperbaiki amalan melalui penyelidikan mengikut minat

dan kecenderungan semua pihak yang prihatin.
b. Mengembang pengetahuan dan kefahaman praktikal mereka yang terlibat
dalam proses penyelidikan.
c. Mengembang pengetahuan profesional guru secara keseluruhannya.
d. Mengembang dan memperbaiki pendidikan sebagai satu disiplin.
 Why Action Research Is
Important
– Encourages change in the schools
– Fosters a democratic (involvement of many individuals) approach to
education
– Empowers individuals through collaboration on projects
– Positions teachers and other educators as learners who seek to narrow the
gap between practice and their vision of education
– Encourages educators to reflect on their practices
– Promotes a process of testing new ideas (Mills, 2000)
 CIRI PENYELIDIKAN TINDAKAN

1. Pendekatan untuk membaiki amalan

2. Konteks tugas seharian
3. Fokus utama ke atas amalan untuk membaiki dan
memahami.
4. Kolaboratif
5. Situasi sebenar
6. Tindakan praktis
7. Amalan daripada teori
8. Berterusan
 RASIONAL GURU SEBAGAI
PENYELIDIK

Rasional untuk melibatkan guru sebagai penyelidik adalah untuk

mengembangkan kemahiran menyiasat pengajaran diri sendiri
disamping memupuk keinginan memperbaiki pengajaran danm
pembelajaran serta keadaan bekerja guru dan murid. Dengan cara
ini, guru mempunyai kesempatan membuat pilihan bagi amalan
pendidikan yang lebih baik.

(Gray 1988)
Peranan guru/pensyarah sebagai pengamal yang
reflektif akan melalui satu proses yang membawa
mereka kepada satu soalan: “Apakah yang boleh
saya buat jika berhadapan dengan situasi
pengajaran pembelajaran yang tidak menarik?”
 Langkah Melaksanakan Kajian
Tindakan

1. Kenalpasti sama ada kajian tindakan adalah reka bentuk yang sesuai digunakan
2. Kenalpasti masalah yang mahu dikaji
3. Cari sumber rujukan bagi membantu permasalahan
4. Kenalpasti maklumat yang diperlukan
5. Kumpul data
6. Analisis data
7. Wujudkan plan tindakan
8. Laksanakan tindakan dan refleks
 Practical Action Research:
Mills (2000) Dialectic Research Spiral

Kenalpasti
fokus kajian

Wujudkan
Kumpulan data
plan tindakan

Analisis dan
interpretasi data
Stringer’s (1999) Action Research
Interacting Spiral

– Look – gathering information (looking, listening,

recording)
– Think – analyzing the information to identify significant
featurts and elements
– Act – using that newly formulated information to devise
solution to the issue investigated
 Henning, Stone and Kelly (2009)

4 steps
Plan
decide the goal and purposes of the research

Collect data
actions are taken to carry out your action research project

Analize

Reflect
3 steps – interpreting and explaining your observations, developing new teaching strategies, justify
new teaching strategies by supporting them with data, best practices, research or theory.
 Model Mckernan (1994)
(disesuaikan daripada Kemmis &
McTaggart, 1988)

Perancangan

Tindakan

Pemerhatian

Refleksi

Laporan
 langkah-Langkah Umum
Kajian Tindakan

Mengenalpasti Masalah
Kitaran 3

Perancangan Perancangan

Tindakan
Refleksi Tindakan Refleksi

Pemerhatian Pemerhatian

Kitaran 1 Kitaran 2
 Impak Kajian Tindakan Ke Atas
Pembangunan Diri Guru dan Pengajaran
Pembelajaran
Guru
1. Guru jadi lebih sedar tentang amalan sendiri dan menjadi kritis terhadap
amalan tersebut dan bersedia mengubahnya.
2. Guru jadi lebih reflektif dalam membaiki amalan pengajaran dan
meningkatkan kualiti amalan dan profesionalisme keguruan
3. Guru jadi lebih profesional, berminat dalam aspek pedagogi, lebih
bermotivasi untuk menyepadukan penyelidikan dan minat mengajar dalam
cara yang holisti.
4. Guru lebih mempunyai kepuasan bekerja dan lebih bersemangat untuk
mengajar.
5. Pengetahuan guru tentang pedagogi meningkat.
6. Kemahiran menyelidik guru meningkat.
7. Guru jadi lebih kritis dan kreatif.
 Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

1. Pendekatan, kaedah dan teknik pengajaran jadi lebih berkesan, kreatif,

dan berkualiti.
2. Komunikasi antara guru dan pelajar lebih berkesan.
3. Motivasi pelajar untuk belajar meningkat.
4. Penguasaan isi pelajaran pelajar meningkat menyebabkan prestasi
pelajar juga meningkat.
5. Kebajikan pelajar lebih terjaga, dan pelajar lebih berminat untuk
belajar dan kurang menimbulkan masalah disiplin.
 Rumusan

Penyelidikan tindakan adalah sebagai satu kajian yang

berbentuk inkuiri refleksi kendiri yang dilakukan oleh
peserta dalam situasi sosial itu sendiri
(pengamal/guru/pendidik) sebagai penyelidik;
melaksanakan tindakan praktik (intervensi) mereka sendiri
yang bertujuan untuk membaiki atau meningkatkan kualiti
amalan masing-masing, di samping meningkatkan
kefahaman mereka tentang amalan itu serta situasi di mana
amalan itu dilakukan. Ia melibatkan proses membuat
refleksi, merancang, melaksanakan dan memerhati.
Sebagai penyelidik, guru/pensyarah digalakkan melibatkan
diri secara praktikal, menjalankan penyelidikan untuk
membaiki amalan pengajaran pembelajaran mereka,
dengan itu mereka boleh menghasilkan pengetahuan
mengenai masalah profesional dan dengan itu tidak
hanya bergantung kepada pengetahuan daripada
penyelidikan profesional yang lain.
 Implikasi

– Kajian Tindakan juga boleh melibatkan ketua jabatan, guru

kanan, pentadbir sekolah/institusi atau sesiapa sahaja dalam
organisasi pendidikan yang berminat menyelidiki amalan,
peranan serta keberkesanan mereka sebagai pengurus
perubahan.

– Kajian Tindakan boleh dijalankan secara individu atau

usahasama, dan lebih ideal ialah PT dijalankan secara kolaboratif
sama ada secara berpasangan atau dalam kumpulan kecil.
 Kesimpulan

– Kajian Tindakan menyediakan satu cara praktis untuk

mengesan beberapa perkara yang kompleks dalam proses
P&P
– Kajian Tindakanmelibatkan refleksi dan tindakan
– Fokus utama: memperbaiki amalan, dengan itu,
penyelidik membuat refleksi ke atas amalan/pengajaran
dalam satu kitaran perubahan.
 Kesimpulan
– Kajian tindakan memberi peluang kepada guru untuk
memahami praktis/pengajaran di dalam bilik darjah dengan
lebih baik.
– Brown(2002): Bagi sistem pendidikan yang ingin mencapai
“World Class Education”, guru di bilik darjah bukan sahaja perlu
sentiasa mempelajari kemahiran dan ilmu yang baru, mereka
mesti merefleksi pengaplikasian mereka supaya dapat belajar
dalam konteks bilik darjah mereka sendiri.
– Kajian tindakan membolehkan Guru Besar/Pengetua
mengetahui apa yang dilakukan oleh guru mereka, bagaimana
dan kenapa mereka melakukannya.
 Kajian Rekabentuk dan
Pembanguanan
Design and Develop Research (DDR)
– Design and Development Research is based on the concept that the practice of design
– and development is empirical by nature (Richey, Klein, 2007). It emphasizes that
instructional
– design process is similar to scientific problem-solving processes. In such a project the
researcher
– develops innovative interventions (also referred to as Intervention Design and
Development) to
– provide possible solutions to practical problems (Thomas & Rothman, 1994). Throughout
design
– and development process designers employ scientific methods to facilitate their
understanding of
– the design and development process (Richey, Klein, 2007).
 Benefits of Instructional Design

– Business:
– tangible: e.g., increased output, ROI
– intangible: e.g., worker loyalty
– Education:
– activity-oriented, project-based, student-
centered instruction
– promote active learning
Instructional System Design

– Instruction is a systematic process that involves teacher, learners, materials, and

learning environment in order to achieve successful and identified learning goals.
– The “system” refers to an orderly, logical method of identifying, developing, and
evaluating a set of strategies aimed at attaining a particular instructional goal
(Morrison, Ross, Kemp, 2004)
– An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote
learning.
– Design implies a systematic or intensive planning and ideation process prior to the
development of something or the execution of some plan in order to solve a problem.
– Instructional System Design is used interchangeably with Instructional Design
– ISD is a systems approach for the design, development, implementation, and
evaluation of instruction.
 ID Definition

– Instructional design refers to the systematic and

reflective process of translating principles of
learning and instruction into plans for
instructional materials, activities, information
resources, and evaluation. (Smith and Ragan,
1999)
 Definition I

– Instruction Design as a Process:

Instructional Design is the systematic development of
instructional specifications using learning and instructional
theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire
process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the
development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It
includes development of instructional materials and activities;
and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner
activities.
 Definition II

– Instructional Design as a Discipline:

Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge
concerned with research and theory about instructional
strategies and the process for developing and
implementing those strategies.
 Definition III

– Instructional Design as a Science

Instructional Design is the science of creating detailed
specifications for the development, implementation,
evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate
the learning of both large and small units of subject
matter at all levels of complexity.
 Definition IV

– Instructional Design as Reality

Instructional Design can start at any point in the design
process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the
core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process
is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see
that all parts of the “science” have been taken into account.
Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a
systematic fashion.
Morrison, Ross, & Kemp Model
 ID Model: ADDIE

– Analysis
– Design
– Development
– Implementation
– Evaluation
 The Analysis Phase

– Who is the audience?

– What do they need to learn?
– What is the budget?
– What are the delivery options?
– What constraints exist?
– When is the project due?
– What will the students do to determine competency (Powers,
1997)?
 The Design Phase

– Select the most appropriate Web-based environment by

examining the kinds of cognitive skills required to achieve
your goal (Driscoll, 1998, p. 50)
– Write the instructional objectives; select an overall
approach and the program’s look and feel; outline units,
lessons, and modules (Hall, 1997)
– Design course content specifically for use with an
interactive, electronic medium (Porter, 1997)
 The Design Phase II

– What are your objectives?

– What skills, knowledge and attitudes are you trying to develop?
– What resources and strategies will you use in your instruction?
– How will you structure the content of your learning materials?
– How will you assess the learner’s understanding and whether or
not they have met the objectives of the instruction?
– (http://et.sdsu.edu/wschutt/addie/addieindex.htm )
 The Development Phase

– Obtain and/or create the required media.

– Use the Internet's strength to present information in many different
multimedia formats so that the learners' preferences can be met (Porter,
1997, p. 196).
– Determine the appropriate interactions.  They should be creative,
innovative, and encourage learners to explore further (Porter, 1997, p.
200).
– Plan activities that allow for student group work to help construct a
supportive social environment (Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).
The Implementation Phase

– Duplicate and distribute materials.

– Install and maintain the course.
– Be prepared in the event that technical problems occur
and discuss alternative plans with the students ahead of
time (Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).
 The Evaluation Phase

– Test for instructional standards.

– Plan several points during the course when students can
provide anonymous feedback so that the instructor is aware of
student confusion and misunderstanding (Schrum, 1998).
– Conduct formative evaluations to improve the course and
summative evaluations to judge the effect of the course
(Bourne et al, 1997).
– http://distance-
ed.fullerton.edu/pages/faculty_staff/online_guide/guide24.ht
m