April 2, 2020

CHAPTER I

GRAMMARTICAL
UNITS

Dao Thuy Vy
 Sentences

Clause

Phrase

I actually felt tired of Word

sitting doing nothing. I
found myself useless.
morpheme
I. MORPHEMES AND
WORDS
1. Morphemes
1.1 Free – bound morphemes
1. 2 Root, Stem, bases, Affixes
1.2.1 Root
1.2.2 Stem
1.2.3 Bases
1.2.4 Affixes
2. Words
 1
MORPHEMES
Definition:
o The smallest units that form a word and usually have meaning
o Cannot be divided without altering or destroying.
o Can be a whole word or a part of a word.
 A whole word: By, come, go…, etc.
 A part of a word: “ful” in “beautiful”, “un” in “unexercised”,
 1.1 Free and bound
morphemes
Free Morpheme
The free morpheme is just a simple word that carry full semantic weight;
thus, it is free and can occur independently.
o For instance, in “ Jennie can go alone” “go” is a free morpheme.
Bound Morpheme
A bound morpheme is used with a free morpheme to construct a
complete word, as it cannot stand independently.
o For example, in “The teacher wants us to do good presentation,”
Þ the bound morphemes “-er,” “s,” and “tion” cannot stand on their
own.
Þ They need free morphemes of “teach,” “want” and “present” to give
meanings.
 1.2 Roots, Stems, Bases and Affixes

Morphemes can also be classified Bases

as root, stem, affix

o A Base is a word form that other

morphemes can attach to. Bases
include both roots and stems. Root Stem
o A Root is the core of a word. A
root can be free or bound.

o A Stem is a root with some

modifications to it.
 o Stem: A part of a word that occurs before an
affix can be added.=> which you add
grammatical affixes to.
o (For eg:”book”+s => “books”)
o All stems are bases, but not all bases can be
stems in English because some lexical
categories (e.g. prepositions) don’t take
grammatical affixes.

o Root: Some elements of the word are more

central than others. The key element to which
others are added
Þ Roots have a lexical meaning.
Þ Eg: “Action” “Brainlessness”; “Rediscover”;
“Player”
Affixes
A general term for prefixes, suffixes and infixes which are both bound
morphemes.

Prefixes Suffixes
Added before a word to form a Added after a word to form a
new word. new word.

Unemployment

Un Employ Ment

Root Sufix
Prefix
 Morphemes

Free Bound

Derivation Inflectional

Suffix
Prefixes Suffixes - “s” Plural
- “s” Possessive
Un Er - “s” present participle
Con Less
- “ing” progressive
Dis Ly
- er” comparative
Re Ment - “est” superlative suffix
Pre Ful - “ed” past partciple
 Inflectional vs. Derivational
morphemes

Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes

modify the meaning of an can change meaning of the

item but not change its parts stem and typically, they
of speech. change the part of speech.
 Inflectional vs. Derivational
Inflectional morphemes
are changes in words to
express their semantic and
syntactic relationships to
other words in the sentence.
E.g.: ‘-s’ in ‘Bush says’
indicates the present tense
and the subject is third
person and singular.
morphemes
Derivational morphemes
indicate semantic
relationships within words.
E.g.: the morpheme ‘-ful’ in
‘beautiful’ has no connection
with other morphemes
beyond the word.
 Inflectional vs. Derivational
Inflectional morphemes
are regularly distributed.
They occur with all or most
members of a word class.
E.g.: ‘-s’ (3rd person
singular present) occurs
with most verbs.
morphemes
Derivational morphemes
do not occur across whole
classes.
E.g.: not all verbs take the
derivational suffix ‘-al’ as
refuse, propose.
 Inflectional vs. Derivational
morphemes

Inflectional morphemes Derivational morphemes

typically occur away from occur close to the root,

the root. before inflectional
morphemes.
E.g.: the plural morpheme ‘-
s’ occurs at the end of a E.g.: organizations.
word, after all other
morphemes.
 Lexical and “grammatical”
morphemes 
Lexical morphemes grammatical morphemes
o Lexical morphemes express o Express very common meanings
meanings that can relatively or is specifically required in
easily specified by using terms some context
or by pointing out examples of E.g : In Tom walked and Tom
things likes football 
o Used to refer to : tree, burp, o Express a relation within a
above, red, pseudo-, anti, -ism, sentence rather than denoting
honest things
E.g : She plays tennis and She
has had some plays to do  
Word formation is a very important aspect of
most languages, and English is no exception. The
term “word formation” refers to the processes
through which new words are created including
compounding, conversion, acronyms, blending,
clippiDerivational
clipping, Word formation
morphemes. Blen
ng ding

compou conver acron Derivat Bran

nding sion yms ional d
morph nam
emes e
• Compounding are defined as words containing at least two roots
to form a new word with a new meaning.
• The lexical meanings of both components are closely fused
together to create a new semantic unit with a new meaning which
is not merely additive but dominates the individual meanings of
the bases
• For example:
1. A hand-bag is essentially ‘a bag, designed to be carried in the
hand’, but it is also ‘a woman’s bag to keep money, papers, face-
powder
2. A time-bomb is ‘a bomb designed to explode at some time’, but
also ‘after being dropped or placed in position’
A list of English compounds

o Compound Nouns
o Compound Verb
o Compound Adjectives
o Compound Adverb
o Neoclassical Compounds
 1.1 Compound Nouns
Noun + Noun o Boyfriend: “Is this your boyfriend? Is he in medical university no
o Traffic Jam: “A traffic Jam is a long line of cars which moving slowly

Adjective + Noun o Gentleman: “He is a gentleman. He even opens door for us”
o Yearly -seminar: “ This English workshop is a yearly seminar.

Noun + Verb o Sunshine: “ Your smile is the sunshine of my life. ”

Verb + Noun o Training room:” He goes to training room twice a week”

Verb + Verb o Make – believe: “But he did fly, in his imagination, on 
make-believe journeys to far-off realms.”
Particle + Noun o Underglaze: “Do you think Mom is liking this new underglaze”
 1.1 Compound Nouns

Adverb + Noun Healthy Breakfast

Lovely Doll

o Check-out: “ Your fruit and vegetables will be

Verb + Particle weighed at the checkout.”
o Drop-out: “Teenagers who drop out of high school
have trouble finding jobs.”

Phrase o Brother-in- law:”  My brother-in-law has been

Compounds staying with us this past week and she's driving me
crazy.”
o Birds – of – prey: A bird, such as eagle that kills
and eats small birds and animal
 1.2 COMPOUND VERB

Noun + Verb o Mrs. Trang usually hires Jessica to babysit their son.
o If I didn't bungee jump, rock climb and sky dive, you'd find
me a boring person.

Adjective + o We do not try to fine-tune the economy on the basis of

Verb short-term predictions.

o I believe in respecting our elders

Particle + o  I will stand in tomorrow
Verb
(Verb + o She force-fed her kids.
Particle)

Adjective +
Noun
 1.3 Compound Adjectives
Noun + Adjective o Brazil has thrown up many world-famous footballers.
o She fixed me with her ice-cold stare.

Verb + Adjective o The athlete’s record-breaking performance won him

the gold medal.
o This is a smoke-free restaurant.

Adjective + Adjective o These fat-free cookies are delicious!

o The impact of divorce on children can be long-lasting.
Adverb + Adjective o We live in a densely-populated city.
o She is a well-known actress.

Particle + Adjective o Some forward-thinking politicians are proposing

reforms to the educational system.
 Noun + Noun o We have 20 part-time members of staff .

Adjective + Noun o Short term contracts are now the norm with some big
companies.
o During the full – length speech she had been talking with
rapidity in a light high voice.
Particle + Noun
o Learning a language seems to be a never-ending process.

o Thousands of people became millionaires during the go-

Verb + Verb
go 1980s.

o He walked into the brightly-lit kitchen, opened the fridge, took

Adj/ Adv + Verb
out a bottle of pure water and opened it.
o I have an interesting, well-paid job, with opportunities to
travel.

Verb + Particle o Move out of the way, please: I can't see through you!

 1.4 Compound Adverbs
self-consciously, widely known, exasperatedly sighing,
up- tightly

1.5 Neoclassical Compound

1. Definition: neoclassical compounds, which are compounds where
often the word elements were taken from the classical languages
(ancient Greek and Latin) and were combined in new ways in English
2. Example:
 microchip, microclimate, microcomputer, microphone,  microwave
micro-organism
megastar: a person who is very famous and successful
megafauna: very large animals
megamouth: a type of shark with a very large mouth
 2 Conversion
(Zero – Derivation)

Zero-derivations occur in English in which a change of word

class occurs without any change in surface form

For example:  
 Noun to Verb Conversion
o access – to access
o bottle – to bottle
o can – to can
o closet – to closet
o email – to email
 Verb to Noun Conversion
o to alert – alert
o to attack – attack
o to call – call
o to clone – clone
o to command – command

 
 3
Acronyms
Definition: Words derived from the initial letters of several
words and use them as a new word
Examples:
 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Treats
 SWOT
 Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
 SCUBA
 4 Blends
 Definition: Similar to compounds, but
parts of the words are deleted.
 Examples:
 Motor + hotel  Motel
 Breakfast + lunch  Brunch
 Wireless + Fidelity  Wi-fi
 Sheep + goat  Shoat
 5 Clipping
 Definition: Shortening a polysyllabic word by
deleting one or more syllables
 Examples:
 Gasoline  Gas
 Hamburger  Burger

 delicatessen  Deli
 microphone  Mike
6 7
Brand name: Extending the domain of derivational
This word- morphemes
formation process Þ Allow productivity (involved
brand name into in the coining of new words)
common nouns, For example:
 the verb "transform”
sometime verb:
(consists of the root word
=> Kleenex,
"form" and a derivational
xerox, scotch tape
morpheme, the prefix "trans.“)
 Adding suffix ”ation” =>
transform (Verb) to (noun)
"transformation.“
 Adding derivational
morpheme suffix "al" after
 B. PHRASES
 A small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit,
typically forming a component of a clause.
 Phrases do not contain verbs and their subjects, and
consequently, cannot convey a complete thought (contrast to
clauses).
 Phrases are originally defined following these 3 criteria:
 Semantic aspect: A cohesive group of words
 Structural perspective: Including no finite verb or conjunction
 Functioning: As a meaningful unit within a sentence or clause
Example:
 Table (word)
 That big table(phrase)
 My dad is making that big table (clause)
S V NP

 Learning online seems to be a perfect method through this “long

holiday” cause by Covid – 19 (phrase as a subject)
 She thought his boyfriend a sucessful doctor. (phrases as objects,
both direct and indirect ones)
 Lia is the most beautiful student I have ever seen (phrase as
complement)
 THE PHRASE AS ADJECTIVE
An adjectival phrase is a group of words headed by an 
adjective that describes a noun (or a pronoun) in a
sentence
Ex:
Everyone was extremely delighted when the winner was
announced.

=>The adjective ” delighted  heads the adjectival phrase

which describe the emotional. This phrase is also a part of
the noun phrase “extremely delighted”
THE PHRASE AS ADJECTIVE
 Attributive Adjective:
 Typically sits before the noun it is modifying:
 Ex: That gloomy outlook makes me feel uncomfortable
 Predicative Adjective:
 Typically sits after the noun it is modifying.
 Ex: The outlook is gloomy and makes me feel
uncomfortable
 A predicative adjective is linked its noun with a linking verb
 (to be, to look, to smell, to taste…)
Ex: The dog covered in mud looks pleased with himself.
ENDOCENTRIC & EXOCENTRIC
STRUCTURE
ENDOCENTRIC EXOCENTRIC
o Is a phrase where one of the o Totally opposite to endocentric
words links the others one, which does not fulfill the
syntactically. This linking word same linguistic function as one
is called the “head”. of its parts
o If the head is removed from o Ex: Inside / the palace
the phrase, then so is the
meaning.
o The rest of the phrase, apart
from the head, is optional and
can be removed without losing
the basic meaning.
o Ex: The three little musketeers
in the royal palace.
Noun phrase Grammatical formula

Example (Pre modifier)+ HEAD+ (post modifier)

Koala lives in Australia
[HEAD alone]

Her hair is curly

[Pre modifier + head]

There are many arguments about that law

[Head+ Post modifier]

The government has announced the decision on the

quarantined time
[Pre modifier + Head + Postmodifier]
ADJECTIVE PHRASE Grammatical formula

Example ( Intensifier) + HEAD + (complement)

That are all complicated questions

[Head alone]

Extremely stunning girl

[Intensifier+ Head]

She was aware of that personal

question.
[Head + complement]

She is well aware that very few jobs

are available.
[Intensifier+ Head + Complement]
VERB PHRASE Grammatical formula

EXAMPLES ( Auxiliary) + HEAD + Object/complement+

(Modifier)
He walks alone
[Head alone]

Tuan is watching you

[Auxiliary + Head]

She buy me a drink

[Head + object]

Mrs Huong considered that this test was stolen

[Head + complement]

He stays up very late

[head + Modifier]

Mr Tung has quested this highly valuable treasure

for 20 years [All the above combined]
ADVERB PHRASE GRAMMATICAL FORMULA
Examples ( Intensifier) + HEAD
1. She should read this detail
carefully [head]

2. He should behave very carefully

in the first date
[ Intensifier +Head]

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE HEAD + ( OBJECT)

Examples 1. Agains a wall
[Head + Object]
2. Beyond The ocean.
Head + Object
 C. Clauses an sentences
 Clause Definition A clause consists of a subject and a verb and is the
smallest grammatical un
 Structure of a clause
 S+V : The dancer + is dancing
 S+V+O : The dancer + kissed + her boyfriend
 S+V+C : The dancer + is + beautiful
 S+V+A : The dancer + lay + on the ground
 S+V+O+O : The dancer + gave + her cat + a fish
 S+V+O+C : The dancer + called + her cat + Cutie Pie
 S+V+O+A : The dancer + slap + her cat + yesterday
 S+V+O+C+A : The boy + made + him + happy recently
 Complex sentence
Co- ordinated Subordinate
One clause may be
subordinate to another.
- When a number of Which is known as the
clause of equal main clause.
standing or Example : She had a
importance are pretty gift for
joined together quotation, which is a
Example : I ate serviceable substitute
steamed rice and you for wit.
ate fried rice.
LINGUISTIC APPROACHES
 Sentences are allowed to omit part of their structure and
thus are dependent on a previous sentence. Sentences of
this kind are known as elliptical sentences

 Example :
A : Where are you going ?
B : To town