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BF330 FPD 8 2020 2
BF330 FPD 8 2020 2
BF330 FPD 8 2020 2
TENDENCY
UNIT 6.1
In statistics, a central tendency is a central or typical
value for a probability distribution.
It may also be called a center or location of the
distribution.
Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often
called averages.
The term central tendency dates from the late 1920s.
Central Values – Many times one number is used to
describe the entire sample or population.
There are many ways to compute an average.
There are 4 values that are considered measures of
the center.
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
• Midrange
ARRAYS
• Mean – the arithmetic average with which you are
the most familiar.
x
x
n
SAMPLE AND POPULATION SYMBOLS
4, 3, 8, 9, 1, 7, 12
x 4 3 8 9 1 7 12 44
x 6.29 6.3
n 7 7
EXAMPLE…….
Find the mean of the following
numbers.
23, 25, 26, 29, 39, 42, 50
x 23 25 26 29 39 42 50
x
n 7
234
x 33.4
7
MEDIAN
• A. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 - the median is 4.
• B. 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10
median = (8+9)/2 = 8.5.
MODE
• A. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 - no mode
• B. 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 6, 9 - 4 ,6,
and 9
MIDRANGE
• The number exactly midway
between the lowest value
and highest value of the
data set.
• It is found by averaging the low
and high numbers.
( Low value High Value )
midrange
2
EXAMPLE
(3 8) 11
midrange 5.5
2 2
WEIGHTED AVERAGE
WEIGHTED AVERAGE.
xw
Weighted Average
w
where x is a data value and w is
the weight assigned to that data
value. The sum is taken over all
data values.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose your midterm Exam score is 83 and your final
exam score is 95. Using weights of 40% for the midterm
and 60% for the final exam, compute the weighted average
of your scores. If the minimum average for an A is 90, will
you earn an A?
Weighted Average
83 0.40 95 0.60 You will earn
0.40 0.60 an A!
32 57
90.2
1
MEASURES OF
DISPERSION…..ARRAYS
DISPERSION
• In statistics, dispersion is the extent to which
a distribution is stretched or squeezed.
• Common examples of measures of statistical
dispersion are the variance, standard
deviation, and interquartile range.
• The measure of the spread or variability
• No Variability – No Dispersion
MEASURES OF VARIATION
indicates 10 35
the number 60 45
of months a 50 30
paint lasts 30 35
before 40 40
20 25
fading.
210 210
DOES THE AVERAGE HELP?
• Range = 100 – 2 = 98
DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN
• A deviation from the mean, x – x bar, is
the difference between the value of x
and the mean x bar.
• Variance Formula
( x) 2
x 2
s
2 n
n 1
STANDARD DEVIATION
• The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance.
s s 2
EXAMPLE – USING FORMULA
6 36
3 9
8 64
5 25
3 9
x 25 x 2
143
( x) 2
x 2
s2 n
n 1
25 2
143
5 143 125 18
s
2
4.5
4 4 4
FIND THE STANDARD DEVIATION
• The standard deviation is the
square root of the variance.
s 4.5 2.12
VARIANCE – USING FORMULA
s (2.121320344) 4.5
2 2
INTERPRETING
TRIAL RESULTS
Trial Size
One statistical calculation that occurs before a trial begins is the
sample size or the number of volunteers that need to be
enrolled.
If the overall incidence in the trial population is low, more
volunteers are necessary. Therefore need more volunteers if
recruiting from general population versus high-risk populations
Some trials are also designed to continue until a pre-determined
number of HIV infections or endpoints occur: if the HIV incidence
is low, the trial duration is longer.
The precision with which the efficacy of the vaccine is
determined is based on the number of HIV infections that occur
during the study, not the total number of volunteers involved.
Statistical Variation
Statistical variation is the technical term for chance fluctuations.
Even if disease rates in two populations (say 1 million people
each) are identical, they may not appear so in a study.
If we study two identical populations with identical risk factors
and exposures, and pick a sample of 1,000 from each population,
it likely will turn out that the disease rates measured will be
similar but not identical.
As we increase the sample (to 10,000 subjects each), our study-
based estimates of the true disease rates in the entire
populations will be more accurate.
Statistical Power
"Statistical power" measures the ability of a study to find
an association between exposure and disease, when
such an association actually exists.
If an intervention does indeed decrease the risk of
disease, then a study with high power will be very likely
to find an association.
However, if the study has low power, then it has little
chance of finding an association even if there is an actual
association between the intervention and the disease.
Depends on SAMPLE SIZE
Statistical Significance
50 heads : 50 tails
95% confidence
interval
2 heads : 98 tails 98 heads : 2 tails
Data
The effect of sample size
group
51 in those who received the full prime-boost regimen
52.1%
1.2%
95% CI = 1.2-52.1%
efficacy
P-Value