PTT 254 MASS TRANSFER

DRYING
PREPARED BY: PUAN KHAIRUNISSA SYAIRAH
 DEFINITION OF DRYING

•Removal of relatively small amount of water or

organic liquids
•Final processing step before packaging
•As a preservative technique esp. food
 METHOD OF DRYING

• BATCH:
- Drying process occur in a given period of time

• CONTINUOUS:
- Drying process occur continuously
 CATEGORIES OF DRYING

1. Heat addition-Direct contact with heated air

at atmospheric pressure
2. Vacuum drying - heated indirectly either by
contact with a metal wall or by radiation
3. Freeze drying – sublimation process of
frozen material like pharmaceuticals material
 EQUIPMENTS FOR DRYING

TRAY DRIER
VACUUM SHELF INDIRECT DRYERS
CONTINUOUS TUNNEL DRYERS
ROTARY DRYERS
DRUM DRYERS
SPRAY DRYERS
TRAY DRYER
VACUUM SHELF INDIRECT DRYER
CONTINUOUS TUNNEL DRYER
ROTARY DRYER
DRUM DRYERS
SPRAY DRYER
HUMIDIFICATION
involves the transfer of water from the liquid phase into
a gaseous mixture of air and water vapor.

DEHUMIDIFICATION
water vapor is transferred from the vapor state to the
liquid state.
PHYSICAL STATES OF WATER
 HUMIDITY & HUMIDITY CHART

pA
• Humidity,H - kg of water vapour in 1 kg of dry H 18.02
28.97 P
air pA
• Saturation humidity, HS 18.02 pAS
HS 
28.97 P AS
p
H
• Percentage humidity, HP
Hp 100 HS

• Percentage relative humidity, HR pA ( H R  H P)

HR 100 pAS
where
pA = partial pressure of water vapour in air
pAS = saturated partial pressure of water vapour in air
H = humidity of air
HS = humidity of saturated air
 EXAMPLE

The air in a room is at 26.7 ̊C (80 ̊F) and a

pressure of 101.325kPa and contains water
vapor with a partial pressure Pa = 2.76kPa,
Calculate:
a) Humidity, H
b) Saturation humidity, Hs and percentage
humidity Hp
c) Percentage relative humidity, HR
 HUMIDITY & HUMIDITY CHART

•Dew point-temp at which mixture of air-water would be

saturated
•Humid heat, cS - amount of heat required to raise the
temp. of 1 kg dry air plus
water vapour present by 1K
cS (kJ/kg dry air.K) = 1.005 + 1.88H
cS (btu/Ibm dry air.̊F) = 0.24 + 0.45H
•Humid volume, υH - total volume of 1 kg dry air plus
water vapour present at 1 atm & given gas temperature
υH (m3/kg dry air) = (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x10-3H)T K

υH (ft3/Ibm dry air) = (0.0252 + 0.0405H)T ̊R

•Total entahlpy of 1 kg of air plus its water vapour, Hy

Hy (kJ/kg dry air) = (1.005 + 1.88H)(ToC- 0) + 2501.4H

HUMIDITY CHART
 EXAMPLE

Air entering a dryer has a temperature (dry

bulb temperature) of 60̊C (140̊F) and a dew
point of 26.7̊C(80̊F). Using the humidity
chart, determine the actual humidity ,H,
percentage humidity Hp, humid heat cs, and
humid volume υH in SI and English units.
 Example on adiabatic saturation

An air stream at 87.8̊C having a humidity H

= 0.030 kg H2O/kg dry air is contacted in
an adiabatic saturator with water. It is
cooled and humidified to 90 % saturation,
a) What are the final values of H and T?
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the
values if H and T?
 DRY & WET BULB TEMPERATURE
Dry bulb temperature:
the ordinary temperature you
measure with a thermometer
wet cloth/wick
Air flow
Wet-bulb temperature : decreases in
temperature below the dry-bulb
temperature until the rate of heat transfer
from the warmer air to the wick is just
equal to the rate of heat transfer needed
to provide for the evaporation of water
from the wick into the air stream.
 example

A water vapor-air mixture having a dry

bulb temperature of T=60̊C is passed
over a wet bulb and the wet bulb
obtained is T w = 29.5̊C,what is the
humidity of the mixture?
 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT, X*

• lowest moisture content obtainable at equilibrium

• on dry basis (kg of water/ kg of moisture-free solid)

• depends on structure of solid,

temperature & moisture content
of gas
• varies greatly with type of material for
any given % relative humidity
• decreases with increase in
temperature

• assumed constant for moderate temperature

ranges
• bound water - the minimum moisture a material can carry
- intersection of 100% humidity line in equillibrium water
content vs relative humidity
-the material will known as hygroscopic material

• Unbound water = excess water held primarily in the voids of the solid

• free moisture content, X - moisture above the equilibrium moisture content

- can be removed by dryin
X* = equilibrium-moisture content
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

• batch drying
• experimental determination
data : WS = weight of dry solid
W total weight of wet solid vs time
To obtain ast free moisture content X vs time t:
W
total moisture content , Xt = WW
S S

free moisture content, X = Xt - X*

To obtain as rate of drying,R :

Get slopes of tangents at
different values of t : W
R A s dX
where
dt
A = exposed surface area for
drying
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

Point AB : Warming up (unsteady) period where the

solid surface conditions come into equilibrium with
the drying air.

Point A’ : hot solid

Point B-C: constant-rate drying period in which

surface of the solid remains saturated with liquid
because the movement of water vapour to the surface
equals the evaporation rate. Thus the drying rate
depends on the rate of heat transfer to the drying
surface and temperature remains constant. Surface
temperature  TW
Point C : critical free moisture content, XC , where
the drying rate starts falling and surface
temperature rises. Insufficient water on surface
 RATE OF DRYING CURVES

Point C-D : first falling-rate drying period which

surface is drying out.Rate of water to surface is
less that rate of evaporation from surface

Point D : surface completely dry

Point D-E : second falling-rate period in

which evaporation is from inside of solid.

Point E : equilibrium moisture content,X*,

where
no further drying occur
 CONSTANT RATE OF DRYING PERIOD

To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

1. Experimental drying curve
2. Predicted mass-and-heat coefficients

Experimental drying curve:

Under similar conditions to actual process
3. Drying curve X vs t
4. Rate-of-drying curve R vs X

WS
t  AR C
(X 1 X 2)
where
RC = constant rate of drying
WS = kg of dry solid used
A = exposed surface area
for drying
 example

A solid whose drying curve is

represented by drying curve graph is to
be dried from a fee moisture content
X1= 0.38 kg H20/kg dry solid to
X2=0.25 kg H20/kg dry solid. Estimate
the time required.
 DRYING RATES

R= -Ls/A (dX/dt)

dX X (0.35 - 0.325)
   0.07
dt t (1.68 - 2.04)
R = -21.5 (-0.07) = 1.493
 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

1. Numerical integration

X
1

W 1
t A A X R 
 dX
R  W S
S

av
X
2

Most accurate
EXAMPLE 9.7-1
 Numerical integration

X R 1/R ∆X (1/R)av (∆X)(1/R)av

0.195 Find from 0.663 0.195- (0.663+0.826)/ 2 0.045x0.745=0.0335

graph 0.15 = 0.745
(given or =0.045
need to
plot)
0.150 0.826 0.15- (0.826+1.111)/2
0.10
0.100 1.111
0.065
0.040

Total of (∆X)(1/R)av =
dX
 R
 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

2. Special cases

a) Rate is linear function of X

WS(X 1 X 2) R1
t ln
A(R1  R2

R2 )
 FALLING-RATE OF DRYING PERIOD
To determine the time required for drying from X1 to X2:

2. Special cases

b) Rate is a linear function thru’ origin (a straight line from C to E at the

origin)

R
tW
AR
X
S C ln C
C R 2

or

X
tW
AR
X
S C ln C
C X 2

and
X
R
RC XC
 EXAMPLE 9.7-2

Repeat Example 9.7-1, but as an approximation assume a straight line for

the rate R versus X through the origin from point Xc to X = 0 for the
falling-rate period.
 MECHANISM OF DRYING
Liquid diffusion
•occurs when there is a concentration difference between the depths
of the solid and the surface.
•found in nonporous solid like glue.
•Moisture diffusivity decrease with decreasing moisture content.

Capillary movement in porous solids

•involves surface tension.
•meniscus of liquid water forms across each pore in the depth of the
solid and creates capillary force by the interfacial tension between solid and
creates capillary force by the interfacial tension between
the water and the solid (driving force).
•smaller pores develop greater force than large pores