Comparison

and
Contrast
 Comparison/Contrast
Comparison shows the similarities between two
or more subjects.

Contrast shows the differences between two or

more subjects
 Comparison/Contrast
 Both should have subjects in the same class.
 Helps us make informed decisions based on facts
 It may be combined or separate
 The two things to be compared must have enough in
common to justify the comparison.
 When two things are very similar it is the contrast
that may be worth writing about present parallel
points of comp/contrast.
What is the Purpose?

 To inform

 To explain

 To analyze

 To evaluate
 When to use comparison and contrast

 To explain the similarities and differences

between subjects in order to make them more
clear (EXPLANATORY).

 To evaluate subjects so as to establish their

strengths and weaknesses, advantages and
disadvantages (EVALUATORY).
 Explanatory Comparison/Contrast
Explanatory comparison/contrast does not take a
position as to which is better between the two
subjects.

Explanatory comparison/contrast only explains

the differences and similarities.
 Evaluatory Comparison/Contrast
Evaluatory comparison/contrast will naturally
suggest one subject over the other subjects.

Evaluatory comparison/contrast is used to

establish which option is better.
 When to use comparison/contrast
Comparison and contrast, whether explanatory
or evaluatory, is used to treat two or more
subjects in the same general class or group.

With subjects from different classes, such as an

insect and tree, comparison and contrast would
be pointless.
 Searching points for discussion
 Determine your emphasis Novel A Novel B
on similarities, differences,
or both. Major Major
characters characters
 Determine the major focus
of your paper. Minor Minor
characters characters
 Make sure you treat the
same or similar elements for themes themes
each subject you will
discuss:
 Novel A Novel B

 Do not discuss Major Plot

entirely different Characters
elements for each Minor Author’s
subject. Characters Life

Themes symbolism
 Formulating a Thesis Statement
 Identify not only the subjects to be compared and
contrasted in your essay, but the point you will
make about them.

 Also indicate whether you will focus on similarities

or differences, or balance the two.
 Structuring a Comparison and
Contrast Essay
Subject by Subject
 Write a separate essay about each subject, but you
discuss the same points for both subjects.
 Use basis for comparison to guide your selection of
points.
 Arrange points in logical order, usually order of
importance.
 Good for short, uncomplicated papers.
 Point by Point Comparison
 Good for longer, more complex papers
 Make a point about one subject, and then follow it
with a comparable point about the other subject.
 Alternating pattern
 Be careful not to fall into a monotonous, back and
forth movement between points. To avoid this
problem, vary sentence structure as you move from
point to point.
 Transitions

 To Compare  To Contrast
 also -although
-but
 as
-even though
 in the same way -however
 like -on the other hand
 likewise -otherwise
-yet
 similarly
-still
 comparable -conversely
 equally -as opposed to
 in addition -different from
-whereas
Cause and Effect
 Writing About Cause and Effect
 A CAUSE is what makes something happen.
or
To understand the relationship of events that brought
about an outcome

 An EFFECT is what happens as a result of the cause.

or
To understand the results that come out of an event
 Writing Tips

 Look for words such as…  Use cause and effect

 Since
in paragraphs to
 So
explain how things
 Because
work
 Therefore
 Due to the fact
OR
…to join cause and effect
 how something
sentences. happens.
 Remember these tips…
 The CAUSE happens FIRST
 Ask yourself, what had to happen first?
 The EFFECT happens SECOND
 Ask yourself, what happened last?
 Also: C before E (In the alphabet)
 Cause before Effect!
 Look for clue words
 Because, since, so, on account of, due to the fact
Cause and Effect analyzes
why something happens.
Some effects are caused by
multiple causes.
Some causes, in turn, can
result in multiple effects.
Cause and Effect Chain
CAUSE
EFFECT

CAUSE
EFFECT
 List Causes and Effects
 First look for immediate causes/effects.
 Then look for remote causes/effects –
underlying, more basic reasons/results.
 Make separate lists of causes/effects.
 List evidence next to each cause/effect.
 Generate additional material for weak points.
 Rate the items on the list by asking, “How
significant is this cause/effect? Would the
situation exist or have arisen without it?
 Types of causes
 Main cause: the most important cause
 Contributory Causes: less important
 Immediate Cause: closely precedes the effect.
 Remote cause: less obvious because it involves
something in the past or far away.
 Causal Chain: an effect can be the cause to
another effect, on so on.
Causal Relation:
 Necessary Cause - one that must be present for the
effect to occur.
 Combustion is necessary to drive a gasoline engine.
 Sufficient Cause - one that can produce an effect
unaided, though there may be more than one
sufficient cause of a given effect.
 A dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting--but
faulty spark plugs or an empty gas tank will have the
same effect.
 Contributory Cause - one that helps to produce an
effect but cannot do so by itself.
 Running a red light might help to cause an
accident....though other facts -- pedestrians or other cars
in the intersection -- must also be present.
 Cause-and-Effect Analysis
 A cause-and-effect analysis generates and sorts
hypotheses about possible causes of problems
within a process by asking participants to list all
of the possible causes and effects for the
identified problem. This analysis tool organizes a
large amount of information by showing links
between events and their potential or actual
causes and provides a means of generating ideas
about why the problem is occurring and possible
effects of that cause.
 Cause-and-Effect Analysis
 Cause-and-effect analysis allow problem
solvers to broaden their thinking and look at
the overall picture of a problem. Cause-and-
effect diagrams can reflect either causes that
block the way to the desired state or helpful
factors needed to reach the desired state.
 Types of Cause-and-Effect Analysis
 Fishbone diagram
 Tree diagram
 The choice of method depends on the team’s need. If
the team tends to think of causes only in terms of
people, the fishbone diagram, organized around
categories of cause, will help to broaden their
thinking.
 A tree diagram, however, will encourage team
members to explore the chain of events or causes
 Fishbone diagram

 The fishbone diagram helps teams to

brainstorm about possible causes of a problem,
accumulate existing knowledge about the
causal system surrounding that problem, and
group causes into general categories.
 
 When using a fishbone diagram, several
categories of cause can be applied. Some
often-used categories are:
 Human resources, methods, materials,
measurements, and equipment
 Clients, workers, supplies, environment, and
procedures
 What, how, when, where
Fishbone Diagram Structure
A Chain of Causes (Tree Diagram) and the Five
Why’s
 A second type of cause-and-effect analysis is a tree
diagram, which highlights the chain of causes. It
starts with the effect and the major groups of causes
and then asks for each branch, "Why is this
happening? What is causing this?" The tree diagram
is a graphic display of a simpler method known as the
Five Why’s. It displays the layers of causes, looking
in-depth for the root cause. This tool can be used
alone or with any of the cause-and-effect diagrams
Tree Diagram
 Example
 Q 1: Why did the patient get the incorrect medicine?
Ans1: Because the prescription was wrong.
 Q2: Why was the prescription wrong?
Ans 2: Because the doctor made the wrong decision.
 Q 3: Why did the doctor make the wrong decision?
Ans3: Because he did not have complete information
in the patient’s chart.
 Q4: Why wasn’t the patient’s chart complete?
 Ans 4: Because the doctor’s assistant had not entered
the latest laboratory report.

 Q 5: Why hadn’t the doctor’s assistant charted the

latest laboratory report?
Ans 5: Because the lab technician telephoned the
results to the receptionist, who forgot to tell the
assistant.
 HOW TO USE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
ANALYSIS
 Step 1. Agree on the problem or the desired state and
write it in the effect box. Try to be specific. Problems
that are too large or too vague can bog the team
down.

 Step 2. If using a tree or fishbone diagram, define six

to eight major categories of causes. Or the team can
brainstorm first about likely causes and then sort
them into major branches. The team should add or
drop categories as needed when generating causes.
Each category should be written into the box.
 HOW TO USE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
ANALYSIS
 Step 3. Identify specific causes and fill them in on the correct
branches or sub-branches. Use simple brainstorming to
generate a list of ideas before classifying them on the diagram,
or use the development of the branches of the diagram first to
help stimulate ideas. Either way will achieve the same end:
use the method that feels most comfortable for the group. If an
idea fits on more than one branch, place it on both. Be sure
that the causes as phrased have a direct, logical relationship to
the problem or effect stated at the head of the fishbone.Each
major branch (category or step) should include three or four
possible causes. If a branch has fewer, lead the group in
finding some way to explain this lack, or ask others who have
some knowledge in that area to help.
 HOW TO USE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
ANALYSIS
 Step 4. Keep asking "Why?" and "Why else?" for
each cause until a potential root cause has been
identified. A root cause is one that: (a) can explain
the "effect," either directly or through a series of
events, and (b) if removed, would eliminate or reduce
the problem. Try to ensure that the answers to the
"Why" questions are plausible explanations and that,
if possible, they are amenable to action.Check the
logic of the chain of causes: read the diagram from
the root cause to the effect to see if the flow is
logical. Make needed changes.
 HOW TO USE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
ANALYSIS

 Step 5. Have the team choose several areas

they feel are most likely causes. These choices
can be made by voting to capture the team’s
best collective judgment. Use the reduced list
of likely causes to develop simple data
collection tools to prove the group’s theory. If
the data confirm none of the likely causes, go
back to the cause-and-effect diagram and
choose other causes for testing.
 Definition

 An effective definition explains an unfamiliar term

using vocabulary and concepts within readers’ grasp.
It can be tailored for different audiences by adjusting
details, vocabulary, types of examples and
explanations.
 Definition
 A statement conveying fundamental character.
 A statement of the meaning of a word, phrase,
or term, as in a dictionary entry.
 The act or process of stating a precise meaning
or significance; formulation of a meaning.
  The act of making clear and distinct: a
definition of one's intentions.
 The Need for definition
 Inadequate definition may cause problems for
the readers. When definitions are not used at
all, reader may become confused by multiple
meanings, complexity of meanings, technical
jargon and symbols.
 Construction of definition
 Definitions are valuable writing toolbecause they
answer questions readers have could have before the
reader verbalize them.definitions generally fall into
four categories:

I. Informal definition
II. Formal definition

III.Operational definition

IV.Expanded definition
 Informal definition are particularly useful for
technical communicators: synonyms, antonyms,
stipulation, negative, analogy and illustration.
 Formal definitions (species= genus+differentia)
 Are valuable for identifying the broad category to
which a term belongs as well as its distinctive
characteristics.
 Operational definitions summarize or outline the
primary steps involved in a function, usually in
chronological order.
 Expanded definition take many forms with each
form providing a different kind of detailed info:
etymology, history and examples.
 Importance of definition in technical writing


 
At times in technical writing you will be required to define
terms.
 You may substitute a simpler word for a difficult word
technical word or you may give a synonym.
 Be cautious, at times a synonym may make it more difficult
for your audience to understand what you’re writing. At such
times it is better to use the specialized term by simply giving a
definition.
 Any term that is not in your readers’ normal vocabulary
should be defined.
 The less technical you audience, the more you will need to
define.
 Definitions may range from a single word to a sentence or
even to a number of paragraphs.
 The basic 1-sentence definition will contain the following;
TERM = CLASS + DIFFERENTIAL
An ohmmeter is an indicating that directly measures

Instrument the resistance of

an electric circuit.
A Pitfall to Avoid:

TERM = CLASS + DIFFERENTIAL

A legume is a fruit from a single carpel,
along the dorsal

and the ventral

sutures and usually
containing a row of
seeds, borne on the inner
side of the ventral suture.

A legume is a fruit formed of an easily

split pod that contains a
row of seeds, such as pea
 For Example
The basic 1-sentence definition will contain the following;
TERM = CLASS + DIFFERENTIAL

An ohmmeter is an indicating that directly measures the resistance of

Instrument an electric circuit.
A Pitfall to Avoid:

TERM = Class + DIFFERENTIAL

A legume is A fruit From a single carpel, along the dorsal
and the ventral sutures and usually
containing a row of seeds, borne on the
inner side of the ventral suture.

A legume is A fruit Formed of an easily split pod that

contains a row of seeds, such as pea pod
 The former definition would only satisfy someone
who was already fairly expert in botany. Lay people
would be no further ahead than before, because such
terms as carpel, ventral sutures and so forth may not
be familiar to them.
 In the second definition plant language has been used
and an easily recognized example ha been given.
 Both examples are good. The one you choose would
depend on your audience.
 Extend your definition as far as is needed to ensure
the level of reader understanding desired (remember a
definition may extend to many paragraphs as
required).
 There are three basic ways to give a
definition
 By Example (A legume contains a row of seeds such as a
pea pod)
 By Description (A voltmeter is an instrument for
measuring electric potential)
 By Comparison (It may be compared to a pressure guage
used in a pipe to measure water pressure)

 At times you may wish to begin a definition by defining

what it is not.
 Metaplasm: any substance within the body of a cell which is
not Protoplasm.
Avoid circular definitions:
 A Botanist is a student of Botany.
 PLACEMENT OF DEFINITIONS
 Within the text
 In footnotes
 In a glossary
 In an appendix
WITHIN THE TEXT

 If the definition is short –a sentence or two or

If you feel most of your audience needs the
definition, place it in the text with the word
defined.
 The definition may be placed after the word is
defined :
 The word Bantu is an exclusively linguistic
label and has no other primary
implications.The word Bantu in an African
dialect means “a man” or “men”.
 Thus, Bantu can be constructed as “people” or
“the people” .
 Sometimes the definition may be slipped in
before the word is used. This technique helps
to breakdown the resistance of the reader to an
unfamiliar term .

 …Occasionally , a star in an advance stage of

evolution will spontaneously will explode ,
and for a few months it will be several
hundred million times intrinsically more
luminous than the sun. Such a star is known as
Supernova.
IN FOOTNOTES

 If your definition is longer than a sentence or

two and your audience is a mixed one – expert
and lay . You may want to put your definition
in a footnote.
 A Lengthy definition placed in the text could
disturb the expert who does not need it.
 In the footnote it is readily available to those
readers who need it.
IN A GLOSSARY

 If there are many short definitions then they may be

placed in the glossary section of a report.
 This is useful in the case of mixed audience.
 DISADVANTAGE: Readers will be required to flip
around in the paper to find the definition they need.
Flow of reading will be disturbed.
 Make sure your readers know about the
Glossary( both in the table of contents and early in
the discussion).
IN AN APPENDIX

 For longer more extended definition that some

but not all members may need. These should
be placed in the appendix portion of the report.