Batteries

Impact of battery characteristics on performance of

electric aircraft
The Peukert effect
• The capacity of a battery is typically quoted in ampere hours or milliampere hours
– Thus, a battery with a capacity of 2 Ah would appear to be capable of supplying a current of 2 A for
1h
(battery capacity is typically based upon a 1 h discharge for portable batteries or 20 h for larger
installations)

• If the required current where 4 A, however, the battery would not be capable of
supplying this output for a half hour, a consequence of the so-called Peukert effect

• In essence, the higher the current draw, the less the effective battery capacity
– Similarly, if the current draw was 1 A, the battery might show an increase in effective capacity over
2 Ah

• Peukert’s equation may be written as

– t is time in hours, i is discharge current in amperes, and C is the battery capacity in ampere hours
– A discharge parameter dependent on the battery type and temperature is n
• Unfortunately, parameter n typically changes for a given battery as it ages and
cycles such that capacity usually diminishes
• However, the effective capacity of lithium–ion–polymer batteries is approximately
independent of their discharge rate
– This is indicative of the behavior of an ideal battery; it may be readily implemented in the presented
methodology by setting n 􏰌= 1
– This is because Li-ion batteries heat up more with greater discharge, and the temperature effect
counterbalances the Peukert effect

• A modification to the Peukert equation, accounting for the effect of the discharge
rate, is given by

• Rt is the battery hour rating (in hours): i.e., the discharge time over which the
capacity was determined (typically 1 h for small rechargeable battery packs)
• For a battery, the output power may be estimated as (where V is volts)
Aircraft performance
• For an aircraft in steady level flight, the power required Preq to overcome the drag D
of the plane at a given flight velocity U is given by

• The drag polar for an aircraft with a moderately cambered wing is commonly
approximated by (assuming incompressible flow)

– where CD0 is the zero lift drag and is dominated by viscous effects, essentially shear, and thus skin
friction drag
– The kCL2 term relates to lift-dependent drag comprising vortex drag and viscous pressure drag
• With dynamic pressure q and reference area S

• Assuming steady level flight requires equality of the aircraft’s lift L and weight W
• Substituting L =􏰌 W =􏰌 ½􏰊ρU2SCL (with 􏰊ρ􏰌 density and CL 􏰌 lift coefficient)
Matching power required and available
• For an electric aircraft considered in this Note, the power required to overcome the
drag is provided by the battery pack
• The power output of the battery will be reduced by losses in the propulsion system
consisting of the motor driver, motor, and propeller
– While each individual element has its own efficiency, for the purposes of this analysis, they will be
combined into a total efficiency 􏰋ηtot
• Incorporation of􏰋 ηtot and equating Preq and PB

• Solving for the time t results in

where E is the endurance in hours

• This equation may be used to estimate the endurance of a battery-powered electric
aircraft accounting for discharge rate of battery and given flight velocity
Maximum endurance and range
• As the propulsion system’s output is power, classical relations for minimum power
and thrust may be used to estimate the maximum range and endurance

• The condition for maximum endurance is given by

• The condition for maximum range is given by

• Together with L =􏰌 W =􏰌 ½􏰊ρU2SCL , this gives the required flight velocity for
maximum range UR and endurance UE as
• Substituting the condition for maximum endurance in Preq

• This gives the maximum endurance in hours as

• Substituting the condition for maximum range in Preq

• This gives the maximum range in km as

• Examination of Emax and Rmax shows that maximization of E and R is promoted by
higher battery/motor voltage (reduced current draw) and battery capacity
• Altitude reduces endurance, as the dependence on density is given by 􏰊ρn/2
• Range is weakly affected by altitude with a 􏰊􏰏􏰊ρ(n-􏰑1􏰐)/2 dependency

• Ideal battery (no Peukert effect): n = 1

• Typical Li polymer batteries: n = 1.3

• Input values for results: η􏰋tot =􏰌 0.5, ρ􏰊 = 􏰌112 kg/m3, Rt = 􏰌1 h, W = 􏰌9.34 N, S =

􏰌0.32 m2, V 􏰌= 11.1 V, CD0 =􏰌 0.015, and k =􏰌 0.13
• Rated battery capacities of 1, 2, 3, and 4 Ah are examined
Need for larger battery capacity implies heavier aircraft

• Let BR be the fraction of the aircraft mass taken up by the battery.

• If j is the number of cells in the battery, then the total battery capacity is

• Then the weight of the aircraft is

• Substitute these in the expressions for maximum range and endurance, flight
speeds for maximum range and endurance

• Cell data used: Wbatt = 0.8 N, Cbatt = 1.5 Ah at 1.1 V, specific energy = 208 Wh/kg
Effect of voltage drop during discharge
Is there an optimum weight fraction of batteries?
Slightly different weight budgeting

• Along with this, use as before

• Then,

• And,
Parametric values used
Optimum battery weight fractions
• Differentiating the expressions for maximum endurance and range with respect to
the number of battery packs j and setting them to zero for optimum j

• The corresponding battery weight fractions are

– For maximum endurance

– For maximum range

Remarks
• These results clearly indicate that, in many instances, the optimal range and
endurance of an aircraft will not be dictated by the desire to optimize the battery
capacity or weight fraction (as the weight of the battery to airframe structure may
be too great), but by constraints imposed by other factors.

• These would include the required takeoff run (affected by the aircraft weight and
available thrust), rate of climb, as well as the flight speed at which the propeller
efficiency starts to diminish rapidly, that is, high advance ratios.
Conclusions
• Optimal battery weight as a function of the total weight of an aircraft is
investigated for cruise flight conditions.
• It is shown that maximum endurance is achieved when the weight of the batteries
accounts for 2∕3 of the total weight of the aircraft.
• This result is independent of the battery type. For range, the battery type affects
the optimal weight fraction and installed capacity.
• However, the battery weight can range from 90 to 100% of the total weight of the
aircraft.
• The results infer that in many instances the limiting factor in maximizing range and
endurance for a battery-powered aircraft may be a minimal structural weight
fraction.
• It should also be noted that the Peukert equation, used in the analysis, may not be
entirely representative for lithium ion batteries at low temperatures.