Ch. 7. Participants and Data Collection

Chapter 7:
Participants and Data Collection:

Identifying How Quantitative Information Is
Gathered
Understanding Research:
A Consumer’s Guide
Edition 2
Vicki Plano Clark and John Creswell
© (2015, 2010) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

How do you identify the participants in a
quantitative study?
• Typically appears as one of the first topics discussed
in the method section
• Often under a subheading such as participants or
sample
• Identifies the population and sample
• Determines the sampling strategy used
– Probability sampling
– Nonprobability sampling
Plano Clark & Creswell. Understanding Research: A Consumer's Guide, Second Edition. Chapter 7 - slide 2
© 2015, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
What is probability sampling?
• Random process to select individuals (or units, such

as schools) from the population so that each individual
has a known chance (or probability) of being selected
• Most rigorous form of sampling because the
investigator can make the strongest claims that the
sample is representative of the population
• Requires that the researcher obtain a list of every
person in the population
• Results found in the study may likely be generalized to
the larger population
What is nonprobability sampling?
• Select individuals to study because they are available,

convenient, and meet some criteria
• Easier for researchers to implement than probability
sampling
• Limits the conclusions that can be drawn about the
results from a study
How are the different sampling methods
characterized?
Category Type of sampling Characteristics
strategy
Probability Random sampling Randomly select individuals from a list of
sampling all members of the population of interest
Systematic random Randomly pick a starting point within a

sampling list of all members and then selects
every nth individual on the list
Stratified random Divide the population into subgroups and

sampling randomly selects participants from each
group
Nonprobability Convenience sampling Select participants who are available and

sampling accessible
Purposive sampling Selects participants “on purpose”
because they are considered to be most
appropriate for the study
What is an adequate number of
participants?
• A minimum of 15 participants in each group in a true
experiment or quasi-experiment
• One participant (or a few) in a single-subject study
(with data collected over a large number of points in
time)
• A minimum of 30 participants for a correlational study
that relates variables
• Approximately 350 individuals (or more) for a survey
study, but this size varies
How do you identify the data collection in
a quantitative study?
• Look in the Method section of research reports
• May be under a heading “data collection”
• Note the general procedures for collecting data
• Identify the instruments used to gather quantitative
data
How do you understand the instruments
used to gather quantitative data?
• Identify how the variables were specified
• Identify the type of instrument used to gather
information
– Demographic forms
– Performance measures
– Attitudinal measures
– Behavioral observation checklists
– Factual information documents
• Assess the evidence that the researcher used a good
instrument
– The scores need to be reliable (i.e., consistent)
– The scores need to valid (i.e., accurate)
How do assess if the scores are reliable
and valid?
• Citation to the literature indicating that the instrument
was previously developed and used for research
purposes
• Text of the items is included so you can judge whether
they are clear and unambiguous
• Experts assessed that the items on the instrument
cover the appropriate content (called content or face
validity)
How do you understand the procedures
researchers use to collect data?
• Note indicators that the procedures were ethical
• Expect the data collection procedures to be
standardized
• Identify how the researchers reduced threats to the
studies’ conclusions
– Independent variables really caused effects in the dependent
variables
– Findings from the sample generalize to a larger population
What procedures can increase a study’s
internal validity?
• Manipulating the conditions so they are as similar as
possible between groups and across time except for
the treatment related to the independent variable
• Randomly assigning individuals to treatment groups so
existing differences among the individual participants
are spread across the groups
• Measuring other variables that need to be controlled,
such as giving a pretest or assessing individuals for
attitudes or behaviors that may be relevant to how
they respond to a treatment
What procedures can increase a study’s
external validity?
• Randomly select individuals from a list of all members
of the population to participate in the study
• Use procedures that encourage as many participants
as possible to respond to the study’s measurement
instruments
– If the response rate is low (e.g., 60% or lower) then the
results may not generalize since the people who chose not to
respond may be different from those who did respond
• Examine the demographic information obtained from
the participants to determine whether the individuals
who participated are similar to the larger group
How do you evaluate participants and data
collection in a quantitative study?
Indicators of Indicators of
Quality criteria
higher quality lower quality
The sampling  Probability sampling  Nonprobability
strategy is strategy is used to sampling strategy is
appropriate select sites and used to select sites
and justified participants and participants
 Procedures are fully  Procedures are
described unclear
The sample  Sample size is large,  Sample size is small,
size is reducing the amount of introducing the
appropriate sampling error likelihood of sampling
and justified  Sample size is justified error
using sample size  Weak rationale is
formula provided to justify
sample size
Quality criteria
High quality  Appropriate for  Unclear how
instruments variables instruments align
are used to  Strong evidence of  Weak evidence of
gather data reliability and validity reliability and validity
The data are  Appropriate approvals  Approvals were not
gathered using were secured secured
ethical  Adequate steps were  Procedures protecting
procedures taken to prevent harm participants are
to participants questionable
The data are  Procedures are fully  Procedures are unclear
gathered using described and and poorly explained
standardized explained
procedures
Quality criteria
The study  All elements of the  Inconsistencies in how
used a study fit together in a the study’s problem,
rigorous logical, coherent way purpose, methods,
research results, and
design conclusions fit together
The use of the  Results and  Results and
quantitative conclusions from conclusions from the
research research design research provide a
design provide a rigorous haphazard examination
addressed the explanation that fulfills of the study’s intent and
study’s the study’s intent and do not adequately
purpose answers the study’s answer the study’s
research questions research questions

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Chapter 7:

Participants and Data Collection:

Vicki Plano Clark and John Creswell

© (2015, 2010) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Random process to select individuals (or units, such

• Select individuals to study because they are available,

Systematic random Randomly pick a starting point within a

Stratified random Divide the population into subgroups and

Nonprobability Convenience sampling Select participants who are available and

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