AV-222

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Lecture No 4

“TRANSFORMERS”

Instructor: Sqn Ldr Ahnaf Lodhi

Class: 84(B)
Book: Electric Machinery Fundamentals 5th ed
Chapter : 2

Avionics Engineering Department

Real Transformers
• Given
  Faraday’s law
• passing through the i-th turn of a coil
• Flux linkage summed over i=1…N coils
• different for every turn depending on position of turn within the coil
• Average flux per turn in the coil

• eind mentioned where flux is primary agent

• Transformers deal with flux due to voltage applied
• Therefore the flux present in the primary coil to which Vp(t) is
applied is

• Average flux in the primary coil is proportional to the integral of voltage

applied to the windings with 1/NP being the constant of proportionality
Real Transformers
•  Effect on secondary coil
• Not all the flux in the primary side goes to the secondary side
• Some leaves the core and passes through the air
• Leakage flux: Small
• Remaining passes through the core to the secondary coil
• Mutual Flux
• Total average primary flux
• Similar for average secondary flux :
• Primary Voltage

• First term called ep(t) and second term called eLP

• First term called es (t) and second term called eLS (t)
Real Transformers
• Comparing
  primary and secondary voltages due to
mutual flux

• For a well designed transformer

• Hence

• The smaller the leakage flux, the closer a real transformer acts
like an ideal transformer
Real Transformers
• Major imperfections
• Imperfect windings i.e. windings with resistance and have
finite conductivity
• Imperfect cores i.e. cores have finite permeability
• Imperfect coupling i.e. some flux leaks
Real Transformers: Imperfections
• Imperfect Core
• Copper (I2R) losses
• Results in heating losses in windings
• Proportional to square of current
• May be modeled by placing a Resistance RP and RS in the
primary and secondary side of the circuit
Real Transformers: Imperfections
• Imperfect Core
• Magnetization current
• Required to produce the flux in the core
• Proportional ( in unsaturated region) to the voltage applied to the
core and lagging the applied voltage by 900.
• May be modeled by a reactance XM.
• Core-loss current
• Current required to make up for core losses due
• Hysteresis
• Eddy currents
• Proportional to the voltage applied to the core and in phase with
applied voltage
• May be modeled by RC connected across primary voltage source
• Total excitation current
• Sum of the above two currents
• In a well-designed transformer, excitation current is
much smaller than the full-load current of the transformer
Real Transformers: Imperfections
•  Imperfect Coupling
• Leakage flux produces voltages of their own

• LP and LS are the leakage inductances of the primary and

secondary coils which will be used to model the leakage flux
Real Transformers: Imperfections
•  Summary
• Resistances of Primary and Secondary windings
• Resistances RP and RC
• Leakage flux
• Reactances and for the inductances L P and LS

• Excitation branch
• Resistance RC and Reactance XM
Real Transformers: Equivalent Circuit
Real Transformer: Equivalent Circuit
Real Transformer: Primary Side
• Equivalent transformer circuit by referring to either
sides
• Referring to Primary side
Real Transformer: Secondary Side
• Equivalent Circuit
• Referring to Secondary side
Real Transformers: Equivalent Circuit
• Transformers model described previously often more
complex than necessary
• Excitation current often 2-3% of full load current
• Simplification of the circuits
Real Transformers: Equivalent Circuit
• Neglecting excitation branch in certain cases
• Less frequently used
Equivalent Circuit
• Determination of values of different inductances and
resistances experimentally
• Adequate approximation to these values may be
obtained by only two tests: Open-circuit test and short-
circuit test
Equivalent Circuit: Open-Circuit Test
• Conducted on the low-voltage side
• One transformer winding open-circuited and the other
winding connected at full rated line voltage
• All input current to flow through the excitation branch of the
transformer
• Series elements RP and XP too small in comparison to RC
and XM to cause significant voltage drop
• Input voltage dropped across excitation branch
• Measurement is normally done for low-voltage side
• Possible to determine the power factor of input current,
magnitude and angle of excitation impedance
• Quantities provided
• VOC, IOC , POC
Equivalent Circuit
•  Open Circuit Test
• Resistance =
• Reactance =
• Impedance =
• Conductance =
• Susceptance =
• Admittance =
• Easier to find admittance
• Magnitude of admittance =
• Power Factor =
• Admittance =
• Compare (1) and (2) to find out RC and XM referred to low-voltage
side directly
Equivalent Circuit
• Short-Circuit test
• Usually done on the high voltage side
• Terminal of low-voltage side short-circuited
• Input voltage adjusted until the current in the short-circuited
windings is equal to rated value
• If excitation current is ignored, all the voltage drop can be
attributed to series elements in the circuit
Equivalent Circuit
• Short
  Circuit Test
• Values referred to primary side for step-down
transformer
• Impedance magnitude =
• PF (lagging) =
• Impedance =
• Series impedance =
=
• No easy way to split series impedance
• Not necessary to solve problems though
Example
Example
Example
Example
Thank You