SEMINAR PRESENTATION ON

AERIAL
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Presented By: Rajat Pandey
Scholar No: 182111813
Coordinated By:
Dr. S.K. KATIYAR

“GEOINFORMATICS & ITS APPLICATIONS ”

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL
 OVERVIEW
 Principles of photogrammetry
 Types of photogrammetry
 Classification of aerial photograph
 Vertical aerial photograph (terminology)
 Flight planning
 Photo interpretation
 Stereoscopy
 Parallax and Altitude determination
 Applications of aerial photogrammetry
 References
 Principles OF Photogrammetry

Definition of Photogrammetry:
Photogrammetry may be defined as the science and art of
producing a mosaic or map by compiling the photographs.

 It may be defined as “The science of obtaining reliable

measurements by means of photographs in order to primarily
determine such as size, form and position of object.”

 The name “photogrammetry" is derived from the three Greek

words phos or phot which means light, gramma which means
letter or something drawn, and metrein, the noun of measure .
 Principles OF Photogrammetry
 The principle difference between photogrammetry
and remote sensing is in application.
 Photogrammetrists produce maps and precise three-

dimensional positions of points, remote sensing

specialists analyze and interpret images for deriving
information about the earth’s land and water areas.

Fig3. Principles of Photogrammetry.. Source Google

 Types Of Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry can be classified based on camera location

during photography. On this basis we have Aerial
Photogrammetry, Terrestrial Photogrammetry and Space
Photogrammetry.
 Aerial Photogrammetry:

 The camera is mounted in an aircraft and is usually

pointed vertically towards the ground.

 Aerial photographs are taken from the air by special

camera mounted in an aircraft flying over the area with

the camera axis vertical or nearly so.
 Multiple overlapping photos of the ground are taken as

the aircraft flies along a flight path.

Continued…..
 These photos are processed in a stereo-plotter.

Fig4. Aerial Photogrammetry… Source GOOGLE

 Terrestrial Photogrammetry:
 It is branch of photogrammetry where photographs are
taken from a fixed, and usually known, position on or near
the ground and with the camera axis horizontal or nearly so.
Continued…..
 The instrument used for exposing such photograph is
called Photo Theodolite.

Fig 5. Terrestrial Photogrammetry

(Source- Google)
Classification of Aerial Photograph
Aerial photographs which are normally used for
mapping and photo interpretation can be classified in to
two main categories : Vertical And Tilted.
 Vertical Photograph:

  An aerial photograph taken with the optical axis of

the camera held in a vertical or nearly vertical

position is classified as vertical photograph.
 When the geometry of a vertical photograph is

considered, the photograph is assumed to be taken

with the optical axis truly vertical.
Tilted Photograph
 Tilted photograph is caused due to unintentionally
inclination of camera axis from vertical.
 If tilt of the camera axis from the plumb line is less than

3 degree the photograph is called vertical. For tilt more

than 3 degree, it is called tilted photograph.
 Tilted photograph may again be classified in two

categorizes viz. low oblique and high oblique.

Oblique Photograph:
 High Oblique: An oblique photograph in which the
apparent horizon appears is termed as high oblique
photograph.
Oblique Photograph
 Low Oblique: It is one on which the apparent
horizon does not appear.

Fig 6. Low And High Oblique Photo.. (Source- Google)

Vertical Photograph (Terminology)

Fig 7. Vertical Photograph.. (Source- Google)

Vertical Photograph (Terminology)
1. Exposure station: The position of the aircraft at
the point of each camera exposure is known as the
exposure station.
2. Flying Height: It is the elevation of the exposure
station above datum.
3. Tilt (t) : It is the rotation of the aerial camera about
the line of flight.
4. Principal Point : It is the point of intersection of
the optical axis of the aerial camera with the plane
of the aerial photograph.
Vertical Photograph (Terminology)

5. Isocentre : It is the point on an aerial photograph

in which the bisector of the angle of tilt meets the
photograph.
6. Nadir Point : It is the point on an aerial
photograph where a plumb line dropped from the
front nodal point pierces the photograph.
Scale of Vertical Photograph

a b

A B

Fig 8. Scale of Vertical photograph.. (source-google)

Scale of photograph :
S = photo distance
ground distance
S = ab
AB
S= f … ( Average or Mean Scale of vertical photograph)

H-h
Where H - Altitude of the aircraft above mean sea level,
h – Elevation of the ground above mean sea level
f – Focal length of the camera lens.
Procedure of aerial survey (Flight Planning)

 Flight planning involves the calculation of various

parameters for the study of the particular area.
 Parameters needed for the geometric design of flight

planning are:
1. Focal length of the camera
2. Photo scale desired

3. Size of the area to be photographed

4. Average elevation of the area to be photographed

5. Overlap desired
6. Ground speed of the aircraft.
 Flight Planning
 Based on the above parameters the flight planner prepares computations
and a flight map that indicate to the flight crew following :
1. Altitude of the aircraft: It is related to basically the scale and
contour as
H = (Contour interval) × (C- factor)
2. Area covered by one Photograph:
Area covered = (L × scale ) × (B × scale)
3. No of Photographs required to cover a given area :
If there is no overlap then,
No of photograph required = Total area
Area of the photo
 Flight Planning
3. If there is overlap between the photographs as Pl and Pw are
the longitudinal and lateral overlaps then,
L = (1- Pl ) Sl
W = (1- Pw ) Sw
Where l = length of the photograph in direction of flight
w = Width of the photograph normal to flight line
Hence, the ground area covered by each photograph;
a = LW = (1- Pl ) Sl (1- Pw ) Sw
and N = A
a
Let N1 be the no of photographs in each strip and N2 be the no of
strips, then if (L1 × B1) is the given area,
Fig 9 Overlapping of the photograph… Source – Google images
Flight Planning
N1 = L1 +1
(1- Pl ) Sl
N2 = B1 +1
(1- Pw ) Sw
Hence, the number of photographs = N1 × N2

4. Interval Between Exposure:

T = 3600 L
V
Photo Interpretation
 Photo interpretation plays very important role in
identification of the objects in the photos taken during aerial
survey.
 There are some interpretation keys through which any

surveyor can identify the objects are as follows :

1. Shape: It refers to the general form, configuration or outline of
individual objects. In the case of stereoscopic images, the
objects height also defines the shape.
2. Size : Size of an object is also an important factor as if
misinterpreted it will spoil the work done. It represents length,
perimeter, height of the object.
3. Pattern : It gives the spatial arrangements of objects and
defines the characteristics of object.
Photo Interpretation
4. Tone(or Hue) : It refers to the relative brightness or
color of objects on an image.
5. Texture : It is the frequency of the tonal change on
an image.
6. Shadows : The outline of a shadow gives the
profile of an object, which aids in interpretation.
7. Site : It refers to topographic or geographic
location and is particularly important aid in the
identification of vegetation types.
Stereoscopy
 Definition:  Stereoscopy, sometimes called stereoscopic
imaging, is a technique used to enable a three dimensional
effect, adding an illusion of depth to a flat image.
 The science of stereoscopy deals with the stereoscopic effects
and techniques which produces stereoscopic effects.
 The effect of stereoscopy is the stereoscopic vision which enables the
observer to view an object in a pair of aerial photographs in the form
of a 3 dimensional model or stereoscopic model.
 Persons with normal vision (those capable of viewing with both eyes
simultaneously) are said to have binocular vision, and perception of
depth through binocular vision is called stereoscopic viewing.
 Fig 10 Stereoscopic vision of Human eye… Source- R. Wolf
When the eyes gaze over the entire overlap area, the brain
receives a continuous three-dimensional impression of the
terrain. This is achieved by the continuous perception of
changing parallactic angles of the infinite number of image
points which make up the terrain. The three‑dimensional model
thus formed is called a stereoscopic model or the overlapping
pair of photographs is called a stereo pair.
Stereoscopes
 A stereoscope is used in conjunction with two aerial
photographs taken from two different positions of the
same area, (known as a stereo-pair) to produce a 3-D
image.
 Following are the types of stereoscopes in general

use:
1. Lens stereoscope
2. Mirror stereoscope
3. Scanning mirror stereoscope
4. Zoom stereoscope
Stereoscopes
 Lens (or pocket) stereoscope has a limited view and therefore restricts
the area that can be inspected where as in mirror stereoscope has wide
view and enables a much larger area to be viewed on the stereo-pair.
Use of stereo pair:
 A stereo pair consists of two consecutive photographs (A, and B)
having a certain percentage of overlap, and these are placed in the
manner in which they were taken during the mission.
 Fiducial mark is the center of the each side of a photograph.
Connecting the fiducial mark of either side, the principal point
which is the geometric center of the photograph is obtained
 On each photograph a principal point and conjugate principal point
are connected by a straight line. These two photographs are adjusted
in the stereoscope so that that these two straight lines are coincident.
Fig. 11 (A), (B) are photographs makes a stereo pair, (C) principal points (a, b) are marked as black
and conjugate principal points (a’, b’) are marked as pink.   (D) Stereoscope.
(Source: www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for220/lecture/Lecture11.ppt, and Girard, 2003)
Parallax and Altitude Determination
 In two successive photos taken in position L1 and L2 separated by
a distance equal to the air base B, and the object height is h; a and
b are the top and bottom of the object (Fig. 12). B is the photo-
base.

Point a and b are projected on the joint photograph as xa, xa’ and xb,
xb’ correspondingly, The parallax of point a and b are Pa and
Pb respectively.
Pa = xa+ xa’  and Pb = xb+ xb’ 
 
Parallax and Altitude Determination
Applications of Aerial Photogrammetry
1. In Archeology:
In archaeology aerial photography is ideal for locating lost
monuments and tracking features, especially those that are not
visible at ground level, those that are under the soil and cannot
be seen on a field walk and those that can only be seen under
certain conditions using crop marks and patch marks, soil
marks etc.

Fig 12. Application of aerial photogrammetry…. Source -Google image

Applications of Aerial Photogrammetry

2. In Urban Studies:
Aerial photogrammetry can be very useful in urban planning
as it is useful in identifying the areas where the development is
required and for monitoring the ongoing development works.
3. In Climate Change:
Aerial photographs will highlight the die-off of certain vegetation,
or the increase of invasive species. It is helpful in monitoring and
controlling the climate conditions.
4. In Earth Sciences :
Aerial photographs can also be used to study the process of natural
changes, such as variations in soil and geology over time as well as
changes to the underlying ground that leads to disasters such as
landslides.
Applications of Aerial Photogrammetry
5. Rehabilitation & Reconstruction:
Aerial Photography contributes to the restoration and improvement, where
appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-
affected communities.
6. Agriculture & Precision Agriculture :
 Aerial Photographs enable more precise interventions and techniques in
agriculture.
 Precision agriculture is a farming management concept based on
observing and responding to intra-field variations. It relies on new
technologies like Aerial Imagery and information technology (GPS-
Global Positioning System).
7. Miscellaneous:
Crime detection, traffic studies, oceanography, meteorological
observation, Architectural and archaeological surveys, contouring beef
cattle for animal husbandry etc.
References
 A textbook of Remote sensing and image interpretation by
Jonathan W. Chipman, Ralph W. Kiefer, Thomas M. Lillesand,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, ed.2017.
 Elements of photogrammetry with application in Gis by
Benjamin E. Wilkinson, Bon A. Dewitt and Paul R. wolf,
ed.2014.
 A paper on “Introduction to Photogrammetry” by Schenk T,
Department of civil and environmental and geodetic science,
The Ohio state University.
 NPTEL Lecture on Photogrammetry by IIT Kanpur
Thank You