LEADING

I. Organizational Behavior
• Trying to explain and predict workplace
behavior.
– Individual behavior
– Group behavior
 Values
• Abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and
behavior across all situations.
 Attitude
• A learned predisposition toward a given
object.
 Three components of attitude
• Affective
• Cognitive
• behavioral
 Affective Component
• “I feel”
• Consists of the feelings or emotions one has
about a situation.
 Cognitive Component
• “I believe”
• Consists of the beliefs and knowledge one has
about a situation.
 Behavioral Component
• “I intend”
• Intentional component
• Refers to how one intends or expects to
behave toward a situation.
 Cognitive Dissonance
• The psychological discomfort a person
experiences between his or her cognitive
attitude and incompatible behavior.
 II. Work-related attitudes
• Job satisfaction
• Job involvement
• Organizational
Commitment
 Job Satisfaction
• How much do you like or dislike your job?
• The extent to which you feel positively or
negatively about various aspects of your work.
– Work
– Pay
– Promotions
– Co-workers
– Supervision
 Job Involvement
• How much do you identify with your work?
• Job Involvement – is the extent to which you
identify or are personally involved with your
job.
• Job involvement correlates with job
satisfaction
 Organizational Commitment
• Reflects the extend to which an employee
identifies with an organization and is
committed to its goals.
• Managers are advised to increase job
satisfaction to elicit higher levels of
commitment. Higher commitment can
facilitate higher performance.
 Absenteeism and Turnover
• Absenteeism – when an employee doesn’t
show up for work.
• Absenteeism is related to job satisfaction.
• Turnover – when employees leave their jobs.
 III. Personality
• Consists of the stable psychological traits and
behavioral attributes that give a person his or
her identity
 Big Five Personality Dimensions
1. Extroversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Emotional Stability
5. Openness to Experience
 1. Extroversion
• How outgoing, talkative, sociable, and
assertive a person is
 2. Agreeableness
• How trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and
soft-hearted one is
 3. Conscientiousness
• How dependable, responsible, achievement-
oriented, and persistent one is
 Proactive Personality
• Someone who is more apt to take initiative
and persevere to influence the environment
– Associated with success, individual, team,
organization, and entrepreneurship
 Self-efficacy
• Belief in one’s ability to do a task
– I can/can’t do this task
 IV. Five traits important to
organizations
1. Locus of control
2. Self-efficacy
3. Self-esteem
4. Self-monitoring
5. Emotional intelligence
 Locus of control
• Indicates how much people believe they
control their fate through their own efforts.
– I am/am not the captain of my fate
 Emotional Stability
• How relaxed, secure, and unworried one is
 Emotional intelligence EI
• The ability to cope, empathize with others,
and be self-motivated.
 Traits of emotional intelligence
• Self-awareness – the ability to read your own emotions and
gauge your moods accurately, so you will know how you’re affecting
others.

• Self-management- the ability to control your emotions and act

with honesty and integrity in reliable and adaptable ways.
• Self-awareness – Empathy – allows you to show others that you
care
• Relationship management – the ability to communicate
clearly and convincingly, disarm conflicts, and build strong personal bonds.
 V. Perception
• The process of interpreting and understanding
one’s environment.
 Four distortions in perception
1. Selective perception
2. Stereotyping
3. The halo effect
4. Casual attribution
 5.1 Selective Perception
• The tendency to filter out information that is
discomforting, that seems irrelevant, or that
contradicts one’s beliefs.
 5.2 Stereotyping
• The tendency to attribute to an individual the
characteristics one believes are typical of the
group to which the individual belongs.
– By sex
– By age
– By race/nationality
 5.3 Halo Effect
• Form an impression of an individual based on
a single trait.
 5.4 Casual Attributions
• The activity of inferring causes for observed
behaviors.

TWO TYPES
• Fundamental Attribution Bias
– People attribute another person’s behavior to his or
her personal characteristics rather than to situational
factors.
• Self-serving Bias
– People tend to take more personal responsibility for
success than for failure.
 5.5 Self-fulfilling Prophecy
Pygmalion Effect
• The phenomenon in which people’s
expectations of themselves or others lead
them to behave in ways that make those
expectations come true.
 VI. Stress
• The tension people feel when they are facing
or enduring demands, constraints, or
opportunities and are uncertain about their
ability to handle them effectively.
• It is the feeling of tension and pressure.
• The source of stress is called a stressor.
 Sources of job related stress
• Demands created by individual differences
• Stress created by the job itself
• Stress created by others’ expectations of you
– Roles: sets of behaviors that people expect of occupants of a
position.
• Stress created by co-workers and managers
• Stress created by the environment and culture (asbestos
removal, coal mining, fire fighting, EMS’s, police, etc.)
• Stresses created by forces outside the organization
– Money problems, family situations, divorce, etc.
 Consequence of Stress
• Burnout – a state of emotional, mental, and
even physical exhaustion.
• Burnout is a physical, mental and emotional response to
constant levels of high stress combined with a feeling of
not being in control.  It usually results in physical and
mental fatigue and can include feelings of hopelessness,
powerlessness and failure. Burnout often begins when
you feel unable to meet competing demands and
become frustrated, pessimistic and dissatisfied.  Some
demands are self-imposed (such as having very high
expectations of yourself) and some are other-imposed
(from family, job or society).
 Some stressors most associated with
burnout:
• feeling overworked and under-appreciated
• confusion about expectations and priorities
• too much responsibility at work
• insecurity about layoffs
• Over-commitment at home and work
 Buffers
• Administrative changes
• Changes that managers can make to reduce
the stressors that lead to employee burnout.
LEADING: MOTIVATING
EMPLOYEES
 Motivating For Performance

• Motivation: may be defined as the psychological

processes that arouse and direct goal-directed
behavior.

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 Motivating For Performance

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

•The psychological processes that arouse and direct

goal-directed behavior is motivation
•In a simple model of motivation, people have needs
that motivate them to perform specific behaviors for
which they receive rewards that feed back and satisfy
the original needs
•Rewards can be extrinsic (the payoff a person receives
from others for performing a particular task), or
intrinsic (the satisfaction a person receives from
performing the particular task itself)
 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic = Outside

Recognition Intrinsic = Inside Praise

Feeling of Job
Well Done
Pride
Promotions Salary Increase

Sense of Status
Gifts Achievement
 Motivating For Performance

Figure 12.1: A Simple Model Of Motivation

 12.1 Motivating For Performance

WHY IS MOTIVATION IMPORTANT?

It is important to motivate people to

• -join your organization
• -stay with your organization
• -show up for work at your organization
• -perform better for your organization
• -do extra for your organization
 12.2 Content Perspectives
On Employee Motivation
WHAT KINDS OF NEEDS MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES?

•Theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people are

content perspectives or need-based perspectives
•-where needs are defined as physiological or psychological
deficiencies that arouse behavior
•Three content perspectives are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
McClelland’s acquired needs theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor
theory
 12.2 Content Perspectives
On Employee Motivation
1. Abraham Maslow put forth the hierarchy of needs theory
which proposes that people are motivated by five levels of
needs:
•At the most basic level, people try to fulfill physiological needs
(basic human needs like food, clothing, and shelter)
•Next, are safety needs (physical safety, emotional security,
avoidance of violence)
•Then, belongingness needs (love, friendship, affection)
•Next, esteem needs (self-respect, status, reputation,
recognition, and self-confidence)
•Finally, self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment increasing
competence, using abilities to the fullest)
 12.2 Content Perspectives
On Employee Motivation
Figure 12.2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: What the
Organization Can Do

5. Self-
Offer adequate ventilation, heat,
actualization needs 5. Self-
water, base pay actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: What the
Organization Can Do (Cont.)

Offer safe working conditions, job

5. Self- security, health and retirement
actualization
needs benefits
4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: What the
Organization Can Do (Cont.)

Offer interaction with others,

participation in workgroup, good 5. Self-
actualization needs
relations with supervisors

5. Self-
actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: What the
Organization Can Do (Cont.)
Offer recognition, status, challenges,
merit pay, employee participation in
making decisions

5. Self-
actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: What the
Organization Can Do (Cont.)
Offer training, creativity, promotions,
employee control over jobs

5. Self-
actualization needs

5. Self-
actualization
needs

4. Esteem Needs

3. Belongingness Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Rules of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Unsatisfied
Self-
Actualization

Esteem Needs
Social Needs
(Belongingness)
Safety Needs Satisfied
Physiological Needs
 Content Perspectives
On Employee Motivation
3. Frederick Hertzberg proposed that work satisfaction
and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors:
•Lower level needs are usually handled through
hygiene factors (factors associated with job
dissatisfaction like salary and working conditions)
•Higher level needs are associated with motivating
factors (factors associated with job satisfaction)
•So, managers should eliminate dissatisfaction, then
focus on encouraging motivation
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Concept

Job-Related Job Environment

(Motivators) (Hygiene Factors)
• Achievement – Working Conditions
• Recognition – Salary
• Work Itself – Policy &
• Growth/Advancement Administration
• Responsibility – Supervision
• Peer Relationships
12.2 Content Perspectives
On Employee Motivation

Figure 12.4: Hertzberg’s

Two-Factor Theory:
Satisfaction Versus
Dissatisfaction
Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation

Job Design
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
SHOULD FIRMS FIT PEOPLE TO JOBS, OR JOBS TO PEOPLE?

•Job design is the division of an organization’s work

among its employees and the application of motivational
theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance
•Traditionally, people were fitted to jobs, today, many
companies fit jobs to people
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
SHOULD FIRMS FIT PEOPLE TO JOBS, OR JOBS TO PEOPLE?

•In companies that fit people to jobs, the challenge then,

is to make the worker compatible with the work
•To do this, firms may use job simplification where the
number of tasks a worker performs is reduced to improve
productivity
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
•In companies where jobs are fitted to people, the
challenge is to make the work compatible to workers
so that performance and job satisfaction rise
•Two techniques for doing this are job enlargement
and job enrichment
•Job enlargement consists of increasing the number of
tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation
•Job enrichment consists of building into a job such
motivating factors as responsibility, achievement,
recognition, stimulating work, and advancement
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation

The Job Characteristics Model

 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
•The job characteristics model consists of five core job
characteristics that affect three critical psychological
states of an employee that in turn affect work
outcomes - the employee’s motivation, performance,
and satisfaction
•The five core characteristics are:
•-skill variety - the extent to which a job requires a
person to use a wide range of different skills and
abilities
•-task identity - the extent to which a job requires a
worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the
job from beginning to end
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
•-task significance - the extent to which a job affects
the lives of other people, whether inside or outside the
organization
•-autonomy - the extent to which a job allows an
employee to make choices about scheduling different
tasks and deciding how to perform them
•-feedback - the extent to which workers receive clear,
direct information about how well they are performing
the job
12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
Figure 12.8: The Job Characteristics Model
 12.4 Job Design Perspectives
On Motivation
HOW DOES THE MODEL WORK?
•High motivation, high performance, high satisfaction, and low
absenteeism and turnover are associated with how much
workers feel they are doing meaningful work, whether they feel
they are responsible for the outcomes of the work, and whether
they have knowledge of the results of the work
•When using the model, managers need to:
•-diagnose the work environment to see whether a problem
exists
•-determine whether job redesign is appropriate
•-consider how to redesign the job
 12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives
On Motivation
WHAT INCENTIVES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?

•Reinforcement theory attempts to explain behavior

change by suggesting that behavior with positive
consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior
with negative consequences tends not to be repeated
•When reinforcement theory is used to change human
behavior, it is called behavior modification
 12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives
On Motivation
•Reinforcement is anything that causes a given behavior to be
repeated or inhibited
•There are four types of reinforcement:
1. The use of positive consequences to encourage desirable
behavior is called positive reinforcement
2. The removal of unpleasant consequences following a desired
behavior is called negative reinforcement
3. The withholding or withdrawal of positive rewards for
desirable behavior, so that the behavior is less likely to occur in
the future is called extinction
4. The application of negative consequences to stop or change
undesirable behavior is called punishment
12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives
On Motivation
Figure: 12.9: Four Types of Reinforcement
 12.5 Reinforcement Perspectives
On Motivation
When using positive reinforcement or punishment,
managers should:
•Reward only desirable behavior
•Give rewards as soon as possible
•Be clear about what behavior is desired
•Have different rewards and recognize individual differences
•Punish only undesirable behavior
•Give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as possible
•Be clear about what behavior is undesirable
•Administer punishment in private
•Combine punishment and positive reinforcement
 12.6 Using Compensation &
Other Rewards To Motivate
HOW CAN FIRMS USE COMPENSATION AND OTHER
REWARDS TO MOTIVATE?
•Wages or salaries are usually not enough to motivate
people to work hard, so many companies offer incentives
as well
•Good incentive plans:
•-link measurable rewards to performance
•-use rewards that satisfy individual needs
•-offer rewards that have been agreed on by managers
and employees
•-have believable and achievable rewards
 12.6 Using Compensation &
Other Rewards To Motivate
Some popular incentive plans are:
•-pay for performance - pay is based on results using piece rates
•-sales commissions - pay is based on a percentage of the earnings made by
sales
•-bonuses - cash awards given to employees who achieve specific
performance objectives
•-profit sharing - the distribution to employees of a percentage of the
company’s profits
•-gainsharing - the distribution of savings or gains to groups of employees
who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity
•-stock options - certain employees are given the right to buy stock at a future
date for a discounted price
•-pay for knowledge - employee pay is tied to the number of job relevant
skills or academic degrees they earn
 12.6 Using Compensation &
Other Rewards To Motivate
HOW CAN FIRMS USE NONMONETARY REWARDS TO
MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES?

Organizations need to be sure that:

•-employees have a balance between work and life
•-employees can expand their skill set
•-employees feel valuable
 12.6 Using Compensation &
Other Rewards To Motivate
•The most common non-monetary incentive is the flexible
workplace
•Companies need to offer employees a means of balancing their
work and their personal lives
•Companies need to create a work environment that is
conducive to productivity
•Companies can help employees build their skills by developing
“shadowing” programs and offering tuition reimbursement
•Offering sabbaticals to long-term employees gives people a
change to recharge themselves
LEADING: GROUPS AND TEAMS
 Groups & Teams
• Group
 two or more freely acting individuals who share
collective norms, collective goals, and have a
common identity
 Groups & Teams
• Team
 small group of people with complementary skills
who are committed to a common purpose,
performance goals, and approach for which they
hold themselves mutually accountable
 Formal versus Informal Groups
• Formal group
 established to do something productive for the
organization
 headed by a leader
• Informal group
 formed by people seeking friendship
 has no officially appointed leader, although a
leader may emerge
 Work Teams for Four Purposes
• Advice teams
 created to broaden the information base for
managerial decisions
 Committees, review panels
• Production teams
 responsible for performing day-to-day operations
 Assembly teams, maintenance crews
 Work Teams for Four Purposes
• Project teams
 work to do creative problem solving, often by
applying the specialized knowledge of members of
a cross-functional team
 Task forces, research groups
 Work Teams for Four Purposes
• Action teams
 work to accomplish tasks that require people with
specialized training and a high degree of
coordination
 Hospital surgery teams, airline cockpit crews,
police SWAT teams
 Self-Managed Teams
• Self-Managed teams
 groups of workers who are given administrative
oversight for their task domains
 Stages of Group and Team
Development

Figure 13.1
 Roles & Norms
• Roles
 a socially determined expectation of how an
individual should behave in a specific position
• Task roles, maintenance roles
• Norms
 general guidelines that most group or team
members follow
 Why Norms are Enforced
• To help the group survive
• To clarify role expectations
• To help individuals avoid embarrassing
situations
• To emphasize the group’s important values
and identity
 Cohesiveness & Groupthink
• Cohesiveness
 tendency of a group or team to stick together
• Groupthink
 a cohesive group’s blind unwillingness to consider
alternatives
 The Nature of Conflict
• Conflict
 process in which one party perceives that its
interests are being opposed or negatively affected
by another party
 The Nature of Conflict
• Negative conflict
 conflict that hinders the organization’s
performance or threatens its interest
• Constructive conflict
 conflict that benefits the main purposes of the
organization and serves its interests
Relationship Between Level of Conflict
and Level of Performance

Figure 13.2
 Seven Causes of Conflict
1. Competition for scarce resources
2. Time pressure
3. Inconsistent goals or reward systems
4. Ambiguous jurisdictions
5. Status differences
6. Personality clashes
7. Communication failures
 Five Conflict-Handling Styles
• Avoiding - “Maybe the problem will go away”
• Accommodating – “Let’s do it your way”
• Forcing – “You have to do it my way”
• Compromising – “Let’s split the difference”
• Collaborating – “Let’s cooperate to reach a win-win
solution that benefits both of us”
 Devices to Stimulate Constructive
Conflict
1. Spur competition among employees
2. Change the organization’s culture &
procedures
3. Bring in outsiders for new perspectives
4. Use programmed conflict
 Programmed Conflict
• Devil’s advocacy
 role-playing criticism to test whether a proposal is
workable
• Dialectic method
 role-playing two sides of a proposal to test
whether it is workable
 Teams

• Why are teams becoming so

critical?
• Will self directed teams be
effective?
– If so why?
– If not why not?
LEADING: POWER, INFLUENCE
AND LEADERSHIP
 1 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGERS &
LEADERS?

•Leadership is the ability to influence employees to

voluntarily pursue organizational goals
•Managers and leaders are not one and the same
•Mangers have legitimate power to plan, organize, and
control
•Leaders create a vision and strategic plan for the
company, which managers then implement
 1 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
•Managers cope with complexity, while leaders cope
with change
•Managers cope with complexity through:
•-planning and budgeting
•-organizing and staffing
•-controlling and staffing
•Leaders cope with change by:
•-setting a direction
•-aligning people
•-motivating and inspiring
 Managers Vs. Leaders

Managers Leaders
• What needs to be done — • What needs to be done —
planning and budgeting setting a direction
• Creating arrangements of
• Creating arrangements of
people to accomplish an
people to accomplish an agenda — aligning people
agenda — organizing and • Ensuring people do their
staffing jobs — motivating and
• Ensuring people do their inspiring
jobs — controlling and
problem solving

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 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF POWER IN AN
ORGANIZATION?

•Power is the extent to which a person is able to

influence others so they respond to orders.
•Personalized power is directed at helping oneself
•Socialized power is directed at helping others
 Five Sources of Power

1. Legitimate Power – influencing behavior

because of one’s formal position
All managers have legitimate power over their employees;
deriving from their positions

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 Five Sources of Power

2. Reward Power – influencing behavior by

promising or giving rewards
all managers have; results from manager’s
authority to reward their subordinates
Rewards can range from praise to pay raises

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 Five Sources of Power

3. Coercive Power – influencing behavior by

threatening or giving punishment
All managers have; results from the manager’s
authority to punish their subordinates
Punishment can range from verbal or written
reprimands to demotions or terminations
Must be used judiciously

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 Five Sources of Power

4. Expert Power – influencing behavior because of

one’s expertise
Results from one’s specialized information or
expertise
Expertise, or special knowledge, can be
mundane or sophisticated

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 Five Sources of Power

5. Referent Power – influencing behavior because

of one’s personal attraction
Power derived from one’s personal attraction
Characterizes strong, visionary leaders

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 14.1 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
HOW CAN YOU GET YOUR WAY AT WORK?

•The ability to get others to follow your wishes is influence

•There are nine ways to try to influence others:
•-rational persuasion - convincing someone by using logic,
reason, or facts
•-inspirational appeals - building enthusiasm or
confidence by appeals to emotions, ideals, or values
•-consultation - getting others to participate in a decision
or change
 14.1 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
•-ingratiating tactics - acting humble or friendly before
making a request
•-personal appeals - referring to friendship and loyalty
when making a request
•-exchange tactics - reminding someone of past favors
or offering to make a trade
•-coalition tactics - getting others to support your effort
•-pressure tactics - using demands, threats, or
intimidation
•-legitimating tactics - basing a request on implied
support from superiors, or on rules or policies
 14.1 The Nature Of Leadership:
Wielding Influence
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO
LEADERSHIP?

•There are five principal approaches or perspectives on

leadership:
1. trait
2. behavioral
3. contingency
4. full-range
5. six additional
2 Trait Approaches: Do Leaders Have Distinctive
Personality Characteristics?
DO SUCCESSFUL LEADERS HAVE DISTINCTIVE TRAITS?

•Trait approaches to leadership attempt to identify distinctive

characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders
•James Kouzes and Barry Posner proposed that the personal
traits that were looked for and admired in leaders were honesty,
competency, a forward-looking mentality, the ability to inspire,
and intelligence
•Larry Bossidy, CEO of AlliedSignal, suggests that the four
qualities that are most important when he is interviewing and
evaluating job candidates are the ability to execute, a career
runway, a team orientation, and multiple experiences
2 Trait Approaches: Do Leaders Have Distinctive
Personality Characteristics?
•Timothy Judge did two meta-analyses (a statistical
pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to
draw general conclusions about certain variables from
many different leaders) on traits and leadership
•Judge found that extroversion, openness, and
conscientiousness were all important to leadership
effectiveness
•Judge also found that personality was more important
than intelligence for leadership effectiveness
2 Trait Approaches: Do Leaders Have Distinctive
Personality Characteristics?
•Women tend to have more leadership traits than men,
but hold fewer leadership positions
•CEOs believe this may be because women lack
significant general management experience, and have
not been around long enough to be selected
•Women believe that male stereotyping and exclusion
from important informal networks contribute to the
problem
•Other reasons may be because women are not willing
to compete as hard as men, or make the necessary
personal sacrifices
 3 Behavioral Approaches: Do Leaders Show
Distinctive Patterns of Behavior?
DO EFFECTIVE LEADERS BEHAVE IN SIMILAR WAYS?

•Researchers have studied behavioral leadership approaches to

determine the distinctive styles used by effective leaders
•The University of Michigan study identified two forms of
leadership:
1. Managers with job-centered behavior pay more attention to
job and work procedures
2. Managers with employee-centered behavior pay more
attention to employee satisfaction and making work groups
cohesive
 3 Behavioral Approaches: Do Leaders Show
Distinctive Patterns of Behavior?
•The Ohio State model identified two major dimensions of
leader behavior:
1. Initiating structure is leadership behavior that organizes and
defines what group members should be doing
2. Consideration is leadership behavior that expresses concern
for employees by creating a warm, friendly, supportive climate
•From both studies, we know that effective leaders:
•-have supportive or employee-centered relationships with
employees
•-use groups rather than individual methods of supervision
•-set high performance goals
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
HOW DOES EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP VARY WITH THE
SITUATION?

•Proponents of the contingency approach to leadership

believe that effective leadership behavior depends on
the situation at hand
•There are three contingency approaches:
1. The contingency leadership model, developed by
Fred Fiedler, determines if a leader’s style is task
oriented, or relationship oriented, and if that style is
effective for the situation at hand
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
•Once an individual’s leadership orientation is known,
you determine situational control (how much control
and leadership a leader has in the immediate work
environment)
•There are three dimensions of situational control:
•-leader-member relations - the extent to which a
leader has support, loyalty, and trust of the group
•-task structure - the extent to which tasks are routine,
unambiguous, and easily understood
•-position power - how much power a leader has
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
•Neither leadership style works all the time
•The task oriented approach works well in high control or
low control situations
•The relationship oriented approach works well in
moderate control situations
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
2. The path-goal leadership model, developed by
Robert House, holds that the effective leader makes
desirable awards available to followers, and increases
their motivation by clarifying the paths (behavior) that
will help them achieve those goals and providing them
with support
•House revised his theory to say that employee
characteristics and environmental factors cause some
leadership behaviors to be more effective than others
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
•where: employee characteristics include locus of control, task
ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for path-
goal clarity, environmental factors include task structure and
work group dynamics, and leader behaviors include path-goal
clarifying, achievement oriented, work facilitation, supportive,
interaction facilitation, group oriented decision making,
representation & networking, value-based
•Further research is needed to determine how well House’s
revised theory holds up
•However, we do know that it can be useful to have more than
one leadership style, and that leadership style should be
modified to fit employee and task characteristics
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
Figure 14.1: General Representation Of House’s Revised Path-Goal
Theory
 4 Contingency Approaches: Does Leadership
Vary With The Situation?
3. Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard proposed the situational
leadership theory which suggests that leaders should adjust their
leadership style according to the readiness (extent to which
employees are willing and able to complete a task) of followers
•-relationship behavior is the extent to which leaders maintain
personal relationships with their followers
•-task behavior is the extent to which leaders organize and
explain the role of their followers
•The Hersey-Blanchard model is widely used as a training tool,
but because it has not been strongly supported by scientific
research, managers should be cautious when using prescriptions
from the model
 5 The Full-Range Model: Uses Of Transactional &
Transformational Leadership

HOW CAN PEOPLE BE INSPIRED TO PERFORM BEYOND

THEIR NORMAL LEVELS?

•Full-range leadership, proposed by Bernard Bass and Bruce

Avolio, suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full
range of leadership styles, from take-no-responsibility
leadership at one extreme through transactional leadership, to
transformational leadership at the other extreme
•Managers with transactional leadership focus on clarifying
employees’ roles and task requirements and providing rewards
and punishments contingent on performance
•Transactional leaders are best in stable situations
 5 The Full-Range Model: Uses Of Transactional &
Transformational Leadership
•Transformational leadership transforms employees to pursue
organizational goals over self-interests
•While transactional leaders encourage people to do ordinary
things, transformational leaders encourage people to do
exceptional things
•Transformational leaders are influenced by individual
characteristics (they tend to be more extroverted, agreeable,
and proactive than nontransformational managers), and
organizational culture (adaptive, flexible cultures foster
transformational leadership)
•The best leaders have both transactional and transformational
qualities
 5 The Full-Range Model: Uses Of Transactional &
Transformational Leadership
•Transformational leaders have four key behaviors:
1. They have charisma (a form of interpersonal
attraction that inspires acceptance and support), and
offer a vision for the organization
2. They have integrity, high ethical standards, and
desirable values
3. They encourage employees to grow and excel by
giving them challenging work, more responsibility,
empowerment, and mentoring
4. They are good at communicating the company’s
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats so
that employees see them as personal challenges
 5 The Full-Range Model: Uses Of Transactional &
Transformational Leadership

•There are three important implications of

transformational leadership for managers:
1. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
performance can all be improved using
transformational leadership
2. Employees at any level can be trained to be more
transactional and transformational
3. It can be used by both ethical and unethical
managers
 6 Six Additional Perspectives

ARE THERE OTHER KINDS OF LEADERSHIP?

•There are six additional types of leadership:

1. The leader-member exchange (LMX) model of leadership
emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships
with different subordinates
2. Shared leadership is a simultaneous, ongoing, mutual
influence process in which people share responsibility for
leading
3. Servant leaders focus on providing increased service to others
- meeting the goals of both followers and the organization –
rather than to themselves
 6 Six Additional Perspectives

4. Loyalty leaders who inspire loyalty have six

principles: preach what you practice, play to win-win,
be picky, keep it simple, reward the right results, listen
hard, talk straight
5. Level 5 leadership means an organization is led by a
person, a Level 5 executive, who possesses the
paradoxical characteristics of humility and a fearless
will to succeed, as well as the capabilities associated
with levels 1-4
6. E-leadership involves one-to-one, one-to-many, and
within-and between-group and collective interactions
via information technology
14.6 Six Additional Perspectives

Figure 14.3: The Level Hierarchy

 Chapter 15: Interpersonal &
Organizational Communication

Mastering the Exchange of Information

•The Communication Process
•Barriers to Communication
•How Managers Fit into the Process
•Communication in the Information Age
•Improving Communication Effectiveness
LEADING: INTERPERSONAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
 15.1 The Communication Process:
What It Is, How It Works
WHY DO WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS?

•Communication is the transfer of information and

understanding from one person to another
•Good communication skills, both written and oral, are
essential to success
•One study found that managers spend over 80 percent
of their day communicating
 15.1 The Communication Process:
What It Is, How It Works
•Communication is a process
•The sender is the person wanting to share information, called a
message, and the receiver is the person for whom the message
is intended
•Messages have to be encoded (translated into understandable
symbols or language)
•Then, messages have to be decoded (interpreted and made
sense of)
•The pathway by which a message travels is the medium
•Feedback is the receiver’s reaction to the sender’s message
•Any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a
message is noise
 The Communication Process

Basic Model

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

15.1 The Communication Process:
What It Is, How It Works
Figure 15.1: The Communication Process
 The Communication Process
Expanded Model

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 The Communication Process

Did you finish What assignment

your do you mean?
assignment?

Noise!
Noise!

Sender Receiver

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 15.1 The Communication Process:
What It Is, How It Works
HOW DO MANAGERS KNOW WHICH TYPE OF
COMMUNICATION TOOL TO USE?

•Managers need to know how to use the right type of

communication tool for a given situation
•How well a particular medium conveys information and
promotes learning is referred to as media richness
•Media are positioned along a continuum ranging from high
media richness (face-to-face communication) to low media
richness (impersonal written media like newsletters)
•In nonroutine situations, a rich medium works best
•In routine situations, a lean medium works better
 The Selecting the Right Media

High Media Richness Low Media Richness

(Best for nonroutine, (Best for routine, clear
ambiguous situations) situations)

Face-to-face Video- Telephone Personal written Impersonal

presence conferencing media (e-mail, written media
memos, letters) (newsletters,
fliers, general
reports)

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 15.2 Barriers To Communication

WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION?

•Communication barriers are anything that interferes

with accurate communication between two people
•There are three types of barriers:
1. Physical barriers include things like time-zone
differences, office walls, and crashed computers
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

2. Semantic barriers occur when words can be

interpreted in different ways
•Does “right away” mean today, tomorrow, in the next
hour?
•The problem is intensified when jargon (terminology
specific to a particular profession or group) is used
3. There are nine personal barriers that contribute to
miscommunication:
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

•-variable skills in communicating effectively

•Some people are naturally better communicators than
others
•-variations in how information is processed & interpreted
•People use different frames of reference and experiences
to interpret information
•-variations in trustworthiness & credibility
•Communication is often flawed when there is a lack of
trust between the sender and receiver
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

•-oversized egos
•Egos influence how we treat each other and how
receptive we are to be influenced by others
•-faulty listening skills
•Sometimes, people simply fail to listen properly
•-tendency to judge others’ messages
•People judge others’ statements from their own point
of view
•-inability to listen with understanding
•It can be hard to put yourself in someone’s else’s
shoes and really listen
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

•-stereotypes & prejudices

•Stereotypes consist of oversimplified beliefs about a
certain group of people and can influence
communication
•-nonverbal communication
•Gestures and facial expressions are an important part
of communication
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

WHAT IS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION?

•Messages sent outside of the written or spoken word is

nonverbal communication
•Nonverbal communication can be expressed through:
1. Interpersonal space (how close or far away one should be
when communicating) is a source of misunderstandings
•Some cultures stand much closer than others
2. Interpretations of facial expressions like smiling can differ
across cultures
 15.2 Barriers To Communication
3. Eye contact signals the beginning and end of conversations,
expresses emotions, monitors feedback, and can express the type
of relationship between the people communicating
4. Body movements and gestures are culture specific, so
interpreting them can be difficult
5. Norms for touching vary significantly by country
6. Setting
•The setting in which the communication takes place influences
how it is received
7. Time
•Keeping people waiting, not providing adequate time for tasks, and
so on are all ways that time becomes a form of nonverbal
communication
 15.2 Barriers To Communication

ARE THERE DIFFERENCES IN HOW MEN & WOMEN

COMMUNICATE?

•There are a number of general differences in how men

and women communicate
•Men tend to be more direct and blunt, women have a
softer approach, for example
•Similarly, men tend to be stingy with praise while
women hand out lots of compliments
 15.3 How Managers Ft Into The
Communications Process
HOW DO MANAGERS USE THE DIFFERENT CHANNELS
OF COMMUNICATION?

•There are both formal and informal channels of

communication
•Formal communication channels follow the chain of
command and are recognized as official
•There are three types of formal communications:
vertical, horizontal, and external
 15.3 How Managers Ft Into The
Communications Process
1. Vertical communication flows up and down the organizational
hierarchy
•Downward communication flows from a higher level to a lower
level while upward communication flows from a lower level to a
high level
2. Horizontal communication flows within and between work units -
its main purpose is coordination
•Horizontal communication is encouraged through the use of
committees, task forces, and matrix structures
3. External communication flows between people inside and
outside the organization
•It involves people like customers, suppliers, and shareholders
 15.3 How Managers Ft Into The
Communications Process
•Informal communication channels develop outside the
formal structure and do not follow the chain of
command
•Two informal channels are the grapevine (the
unofficial communication system of the informal
organization) and management-by-wandering around
(a manager literally walking around and talking with
people across all lines of authority)
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
HOW CAN MANAGERS USE INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY TO COMMUNICATE?

•Information technology can allow managers to communicate

more effectively
•There are several types of information technology including:
1. The internet, intranets, & extranets
•The Internet is a network of computer networks
•Two private uses of the Internet are intranets (an organization’s
private Internet) and extranets (an extended intranet that
connects internal employees with selected customers, suppliers,
and other strategic partners)
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
2. E-mail
•E-mail (electronic mail that is sent via the Internet) reduces the
cost of distributing information, increases teamwork, reduces
paper costs, and increases flexibility
•However, it can also lead to wasted time dealing with spam
(unsolicited jokes and junk mail), information overload, and
neglect of other media

3. Videoconferencing
•Videoconferencing or teleconferencing uses video and audio
links along with computers to enable people in different
locations to see, hear, and talk with each other
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
4. Group Support Systems
•Group support systems use state-of-the-art computer
software and hardware to help people work better
together
•They allow people to share information without time
or space constraints
•Companies with these systems can create virtual
teams
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
5. Telecommuting
•Telecommuting involves doing work that is usually
done at the office away from the office
•Telecommuters use phone, fax, and the Internet to
communicate
•Telecommuting can: reduce capital costs, increase
flexibility and autonomy for workers, provide a
competitive advantage when recruiting, increase job
satisfaction, increase productivity, and allow companies
to tap nontraditional workers
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
6. Handheld Devices
•Handheld devices like PDAs and smartphones allow workers to
work from anywhere
7. Blogs
•A blog is an online journal in which people write whatever they
want about any topic
•Blogs give people an informal means of discussing issues
•However, they’re not always accurate, they can be used to say
unflattering things about the company, and there aren’t any
guidelines about what is acceptable to post
 15.4 Communication In
The Information Age
WHAT PROBLEMS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

•Information technology can be problematic in the workplace

when it interferes with productivity
•One of the biggest time killers in the workplace is personal use
of the Internet
•Trying to get online connections to work, dealing with spam and
viruses, and so on also detract from an employee’s productivity
•Information overload occurs when the amount of information
received exceeds a person’s ability to handle or process it
 15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER LISTENER?

•To be a better listener, managers should:

•-judge content, not the delivery
•-ask questions and summarize remarks
•-listen for ideas
•-resist distractions and show interest
•-give a fair hearing and correct for personal biases
 15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER READER?

•To streamline reading, managers should

•-be savvy about periodicals and books - focus on the important
stuff
•-transfer their reading load - get employees to write up
summaries of important books
•-make internal memos and e-mail more efficient
•-use the five steps of the top down reading system: rate
reasons to read, question and predict answers, survey the big
picture, skim for main ideas, and summarize
 Effective Reading

Top-Down Reading – RQ3S

• Rate reasons to read
• Question and predict answers
• Survey the big picture – get overview
• Skim for main ideas
• Summarize as you skim

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER WRITER?

•Don’t show your ignorance - be sure to proofread and use

spelling and grammar checks before sending e-mails
•Understand your strategy before you write - when writing, lay
out ideas: most important to least important, least controversial
to most controversial, and negative to positive
•Start with your purpose - state your purpose and what you
expect of the reader
•Write simply, concisely, and directly - be direct and use an
active voice
•Telegraph your writing with a powerful layout - make your
writing easy to read by using highlighting and white space
 15.5 Improving Communication Effectiveness

HOW CAN YOU BE A BETTER SPEAKER?

1. Tell them what you’re going to say - the introduction of your

speech should prepare listeners for the rest of the speech
•It should take about 5-15 percent of your time
2. Say it - this part of the speech should take 75-90 percent of
your time
•Be succinct
3. Tell them what you said - the conclusion can be as important
as the introduction
•It should take about 5-10 percent of your time
• END

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