CELL

DIVISION
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 MITOSIS
Significance of mitosis:
• multicellular plants and animals start life as single cells, the zygotes
or fertilized egg cells; the process of Mitosis gives rise to many cells
which differentiate to form tissues, organs and organ-systems of
the organism.
• mitosis results in an increase in size and growth of an organism,
• cell reproduction is used to form new cells to renew certain tissues
and to replace worn out cells
• mitosis is also used as a form of asexual reproduction in some
organisms like in unicellular Amoeba and multicellular Hydra as
well as vegetative reproduction in plants.
• Allows damaged cells to be repaired, replaced or regenerated.
 THE CELL CYCLE
G1 phase - growth and synthesis.
•Gap phase 1 begins at the completion of mitosis and cytokinesis and lasts until the beginning of S
phase. This phase is generally the longest of the four cell cycle phases and is quite variable in length.
During this phase, the cell chooses either to replicate its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or to exit the
cell cycle and enter a quiescent state (the G0 phase).
S phase
•Replication of the chromosomes is restricted to one specific portion of interphase, called S phase
(DNA synthesis phase), which typically lasts about 6 h. In mammalian cells, the start of S phase—the
actual initiation of DNA synthesis—takes place several hours after the cell has committed to carrying
out DNA synthesis. During S phase, each chromosome replicates exactly once to form a pair of
physically linked sister chromatids. In animal cells, a pair of centrioles is also duplicated during S
phase.
G2 phase - Preparation for division
•The portion of interphase that follows S phase is called gap phase 2. Some cells can exit the cell cycle
from G2 phase, just as they can from G1 phase.
Interphase & mitosis
Interphase

The cell is engaged in metabolic activity

and performing its prepare for mitosis
(the next four phases that lead up to and
include nuclear division). Chromosomes
are not clearly discerned in the nucleus,
although a dark spot called the nucleolus
may be visible. The cell may contain a
pair of centrioles (or microtubule
organizing centers in plants) both of
which are organizational sites for
microtubules.
Prophase

Chromatin in the nucleus begins

to condense and becomes visible
in the light microscope as
chromosomes. The nucleolus
disappears. Centrioles begin
moving to opposite ends of the
cell and fibers extend from the
centromeres. Some fibers cross
the cell to form the mitotic
spindle.
 Prometaphase

The nuclear membrane

dissolves, marking the beginning
of prometaphase. Proteins
attach to the centromeres
creating the kinetochores.
Microtubules attach at the
kinetochores and the
chromosomes begin moving.
 Metaphase

Spindle fibers align the chromosomes

along the middle of the cell nucleus.
This line is referred to as the
metaphase plate. This organization
helps to ensure that in the next phase,
when the chromosomes are separated,
each new nucleus will receive one
copy of each chromosome.
 Anaphase

The paired chromosomes separate at

the kinetochores and move to
opposite sides of the cell. Motion
results from a combination of
kinetochore movement along the
spindle microtubules and through the
physical interaction of polar
microtubules.
 Telophase

Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of

cell, and new membranes form around
the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes
disperse and are no longer visible
under the light microscope. The
spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis
or the partitioning of the cell may also
begin during this stage.
 Cytokinesis

In animal cells, cytokinesis results

when a fiber ring composed of a
protein called actin around the center
of the cell contracts pinching the cell
into two daughter cells, each with
one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid
wall requires that a cell plate be
synthesized between the two
daughter cells.
The Importance Of Controlled Mitosis

• Genetic information carried by the

chromosomes is necessary for the
proper funtioning of an organisms.
• To ensure the genetic information
content and the number of
chromosomes in the parent cells are
maintained in the daughter cells from
one generation to the next.
Cancer - An Effect of Uncontrolled Mitosis
• Cells which divide mitotically in an uncontrolled manner can
result in the growth of cell masses called tumors.
• Tumor cells may
a. remain localised& be benign (non-cancerous), or
b. break away & be malignant (cancerous). They are carried to
other parts of the body where they start similar new tumors.
• Cells become cancerous due to damaged DNA.
• Cancer cells have an abnormal cell cycle, live longer than
normal cells & divide to produce more cancer cells.
• Cancer cells also have higher metabolic rates compared to
normal cells.
 Well-formed oval- Highly disorganized
shaped glands, evenly cancer cells stacked
lined with a single, upon each other in an
organized layer of cells apparently random
indicated by arrows fashion.
 Cancer Treatments
• Surgical removal of cancerous tissues / organs.
• Radiotherapy:
o Radioactive rays are aimed at malignant tumoursto
kill off cancer cells.
• Chemotherapy:
o Cytotoxic chemicals are injected into the blood to be
carried to malignant tumours. Cancer cells will
absorb higher dosages of these chemicals due to
their higher metabolic rates and are more likely to be
killed. Although dosages are carefully calculated to
minimise poisoning of non-cancerous cells, some
normal cells are inevitably killed as well –the cause of
many of the unpleasant side effects of chemotherapy.
 APPLICATION OF MITOSIS
• Cloning
• Tissue Cultre
 CLONING
• Process of producing clones or genetically
identical copies of a cell, tissue or an
organisms through asexual reproduction.
• Involve the transfer of the nucleus from a
somatic cell to an ovum or embryonic cell
which has the nucleus removed.
• first cloned→ Dolly (1997)
 TISSUE CULTURE
• Tissue culture technique involves the growth
of cells or tissues outside the cell in suitable
medium (contain nutrients and growth
hormone).
• Plant cell divides by mitosis to form callus
(undifferentiated mass of tissue)
• Callus →embryo →plantlets.
 New plantlets (shoots with leaves)
are forming

A mass of callus tissue is formed that is just

starting to make new plantlets.

If the conditions are right a small "forest"

of plants will develop in the tissue culture
container.
 ADVANTAGE OF CLONING
Potential benefits to modern medicine
Even today, the full potential of stem cells has not been fully explored. The issue of stem cells has led
to controversy because embryos are generally used and they have to be destroyed for the cells to be
used. However, a number of researchers believe that stem cells will eventually change the face of
medicine as we know it. Given the fact that the cells can be manipulated to mimic other types of
cells, this can provide new ways to treat diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s.
Cloning also offers hope to persons needing organ transplants. People requiring organ transplants to
survive an illness often wait years for a suitable donor. In many cases these patients die waiting, as
there are long lists of people requiring organs. Theoretically, cloning could eliminate this by
producing more animals that can act as suitable donors. Pig livers have been successfully
transplanted to human beings, as an interim measure until a human liver is found. Additionally,
cloning of these animals not put a burden on the world’s food supply.
Helping infertile couples
Cloning offers couples dealing with fertility the chance to have a child of their own. Many infertile
couples can’t be helped by the techniques currently available. In fact, although some states have
already banned human cloning because of ethical issues, more couples struggling to have children
are starting to consider the possibilities that cloning offer
Reverse the aging process
Cloning is being touted as a future answer to reverse the
effects of aging.The antiaging market is a prime target becuase
it is alreay a multibillion industry.
Protecting Endangered Species
Despite the best efforts of conservationists worldwide, some
species are nearing extinction. The successful cloning of Dolly
represents the first step in protecting endangered wildlife.
Improving food supply
Cloning could provide a means of cultivating plants that are
stronger and more resistant to diseases, while producing
more. The same could happen to livestock as well where
diseases such as foot and mouth disease could be
eradicated.Cloning could therefore effectively solve the world’s
food problem and minimize or possible eadicate starvation.
 DISADVANTAGES OF CLONING
• The Element of Uncertainty
While the cloning of Dolly was seen as a success story, many embryos
were destroyed before the desired result was achieved. The process
started with 277 eggs, and Dolly was the single successful outcome.
Regardless of success in other areas, the field of cloning still has a long
way to go. Infertile couples for example, could go through the same
heartache as they would if in vitro fertilization failed.
• Inheriting diseases
Cloning creates a copy of the original. A human clone would therefore
inherit the genetic traits of its predecessor. This includes genetic
abnormalities and diseases. Dolly the sheep for example exhibited signs of
what some suggested were premature aging, although this was firmly
denied by her ‘developers’.
• The Potential for Abuse
If human cloning became a reality what
checks and balances would be put in place to
prevent abuse? Would scientists go
overboard with the technology? If a couple
has a clone that they are not happy with,
what would they do next? These are all
questions that must be raised in any
discussion on cloning. Some have expressed
the view that clones could be grown in a
farm-like fashion simply for harvesting organs
or stem cells. The potential for devaluing
human life cannot be ignored.
Cloning, like so many other issues that have
faced modern science, must be carefully
evaluated. There will always be detractors,
those who feel that anyone involved in
cloning is playing God. And this may not be
too far from the truth. However, any
discussion on cloning must be looked at in
the context of its inherent value to mankind.
 Significance of meiosis

• If meiosis did not occur, fusion of the gametes would not result in
a diploid condition (2n) but 4n.
• Meiosis also provides opportunities for new combination of genes,
ensuring heritable variation.
• The reduction of chromosomes from the diploid to the haploid
condition separates alleles so that each gamete carries a sole
allele for a gene locus.
• In addition, the orientation of the metaphase I/II equatorial lining-
up is random, resulting in new allelic recombinationis.
• Independent assortment forms the basis of Mendel's second law.
• Lastly, chiasmata causes genetic breaks and the establishment of
new ones.
 MEIOSIS
• Interphase: Before meiosis begins, genetic
material is duplicated.
• First division of meiosis
– Prophase 1: Duplicated chromatin condenses. Each
chromosome consists of two, closely associated
sister chromatids. Crossing-over can occur during
the latter part of this stage.
– Metaphase 1: Homologous chromosomes align at
the equatorial plate.
– Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs separate with sister
chromatids remaining together.
– Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with
each daughter containing only one chromosome of
the homologous pair.
• Second division of meiosis: Gamete formation
– Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.
– Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at the equatorial
plate.
– Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister
chromatids migrate separately to each pole.
– Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid
daughter cells are obtained.
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEISIS I AND
MEIOSIS II
MEIOSIS I.
During prophase I, homologous chromosomes
pair up (synapsis) and crossing over between
non-sister chromatids occurs.
During metaphase I, homologous
chromosomes align at the mataphase plate
(equator) of the cell.
During anaphase I, homolohous chromosomes
seprate and move to opposite poles. Sister
chromatids are still attached together and
move as a unit.
At the nd of telophase I, two haploid daughter
cells are formed. Each daughter cell has only
one of each type of chromosome; either the
paternal or maternal chromosome.
MEIOSIS II
During prophase II, synapsis of homologous
chromosomes and crossing over between non-
sister chromatids do not take place
During metaphase II, chromosomes (consisting
of two sister chromatids each) align at the
metaphase plate (equator) of the cell.
During anaphase II, sister chromatidsseparate,
becoming daughter chromosomes that move
to the opposite poles.
At the end of telophase II, four haploid
daughter cells are formed. Each daughter cell
has the same number of chromosomes as the
haploid cell produced in meiosis I, but each cell
has only one of the sister chromatids.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS
AND MEIOSIS
 MITOSIS
Mitosis takes place within somatic cells (cells
that make up the body).
One single division of the mother cell results
in two daughter cells.
A mitotic mother cell can either be haploid or
diploid.
The number of chromosomes per nucleus
remains the same after division.
It is preceded by a S-phase in which the
amount of DNA is duplicated.
In mitosis, there is no pairing of homologous
chromosomes.
There is no exchange of DNA (crossing-over)
between chromosomes.
The centromeres split during anaphase.
The genotype of the daughter cells is identical Meiotic products differ in their genotype from the
to that of the mother cells.
After mitosis, each daughter cell has exactly After meiosis, each daughter cell has only half of
same DNA strands.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis takes place within gamete cells (sex cells).
Two divisions of the mother cell result in four
meiotic products or haploid gametes.
A meiotic mother cell is always diploid.
The meiotic products contain a haploid (n) number
of chromosomes in contrast to the (2n) number of
chromosomes in mother cell.
In meiosis, only meiosis I is preceded by a S-phase.
During prophase I, complete pairing of all
homologous chromosomes takes place.
There is at least one crossing-over or DNA
exchange per homologous pair of chromosomes.
The centromeres do separate during anaphase II,
but not during anaphase I.
mother cell.
the DNA strands