CONTENT

a) Heat as energy transfer

b) Internal energy
c) Specific heat, Latent heat
d) Heat conduction, convection
and radiation
e) Laws of Thermodynamics
f) Applications: Refrigerators,
and Heat Engine
 HEAT AS ENERGY TRANSFER
 Heat is a form of energy.

Definition of heat:
 Heat is energy transferred from one object to another because of a
difference in temperature.
• Energy is transfer from a high temperature object to a lower
temperature object.

SYMBOL : Q

S.I UNIT : Joule (J) Other unit :1 calorie (cal) = 4.186 joules (J)
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

 Specific heat, c : the amount of HEAT required to raised the

temperature of 1 kg of the material by 1oC

Symbol: c
S.I UNIT : J/kg.oC

Q Q
c  
mT m ( T2  T1 )
 Q  mc ( T2  T1 )
Q  mcT
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
 The specific heat, c, is characteristic of the material. Some values
are listed in the tables below :
Example 1

Cold water at temperature of 15oC enters the heater and the resulting hot
water at a temperature of 61oC. A person uses 120 kg of hot water in
taking a shower. Find the energy needed to heat the water.
Given specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kgoC
Solution :

Ans : 2.32 x 107J

 LATENT HEAT
Latent heat - Energy required for a material to change phase, even
though its temperature is not changing.
 LATENT HEAT
 There are 3 states of phase:
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
 Two types of Latent Heat:

Q  mL f

Q  mLv
LATENT HEAT
Example 2
A 25 g ice cube is placed on the counter. After a while it melts. How
much energy was required to melt it?
Latent heat of fusion = 3.33 × 105 J kg-1
Solution :

Ans : 8325 J
Example 3
A beaker of water is heated to boiling. The water has a mass of 400
grams. How much energy will be needed to boil it to steam?
Latent heat of vaporization = 2.26 × 106 J kg-1
Solution :

Ans : 9.04 x 105J

 HEAT TRANSFER

 The three main methods of heat transfer are conduction, convection

and radiation.
Convection Radiation
( via fluid ) ( via electromagnetic
Conduction radiation)
( via direct contact )

• No transfer of
• the direct flow of heat • Heat transfer between
medium required
through material a surface and adjacent
• Transfer of thermal
resulting from physical fluid (gas or liquid) and
energy through
contact by the flow of fluid from
matter of space by
one place to another,
electromagnetic
induced by
waves
temperature
 HEAT TRANSFER : CONDUCTION
CONDUCTION

Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly through

a material, with any bulk motion of the material playing no role in the
transfer.

One mechanism for conduction occurs when the atoms or molecules

in a hotter part of the material vibrate or move with greater energy than
those in a cooler part.

By means of collisions, the more energetic molecules pass on some of

their energy to their less energetic neighbors.

 Materials that conduct heat well are called thermal conductors, and
those that conduct heat poorly are called thermal insulators.
 HEAT TRANSFER : CONDUCTION

The amount of heat Q that is conducted through the bar depends on

a number of factors:

1. The time during which conduction takes place.

2. The temperature difference between the ends of the bar.
3. The cross sectional area of the bar.
4. The length of the bar.
 HEAT TRANSFER : CONDUCTION

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A MATERIAL

The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length L and
cross-sectional area A is :
k
 kAT  t
is the thermal
conductivity
Q SI Units of Thermal
L Conductivity: J/(s·m·Co)

So, the heat flow per unit time ( rate of heat flow ) is given by:

Q  kAT 

t L
 Materials with large k are called conductors; those with small k are
called insulators.
 HEAT TRANSFER : CONDUCTION

› ›

T1 T2

Q1 Q 2

Q  kAT  t1 t2

t L k 1 A(T 0  T 1) k 2 A(T 1  T 2)

L1 L2
Example 4

One end of a properly insulated copper rod of length 20cm and cross-
sectional area 2.0cm2 is maintained at a constant temperature 100°C
while the other end is at a temperature 0°C. If the rod is in steady state,
determine;
i) the temperature gradient along the rod
ii) the temperature at a point 4.0 cm from the hot end of the rod.
iii) the rate of heat flow through the rod.
[Given copper K = 380 Wm-1K-1]

Solution :

Ans : -500 °C/m, 80 °C, 38 W

Solution :

Ans : -500 °C/m, 80 °C, 38 W

Example 5
100ºC 60ºC 0ºC
Copper Steel

100cm L

When a rod of area 5 cm² achieve steady condition, determine

a) the length L of the steel rod
b) the rate of heat flow through both rods.
Given, thermal conductivity copper = 380Wm-1K-1 and Steel = 46 Wm-1K-1

Solution :

Ans : 18.2 cm, 7.6 W

 HEAT TRANSFER : CONVECTION
 Convection occurs when heat flows by the mass movement of
molecules from one place to another.
 It may be natural or forced; both these examples are natural
convection.
 HEAT TRANSFER : RADIATION
 The most familiar example of radiation is our own Sun, which
radiates at a temperature of almost 6000 K.
 Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of
waves or particles through space or through a material medium
 THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is built upon the

fundamental laws that heat and work obey.

The collection of objects on which attention is being focused is called

the system, while everything else in the environment is called the
surroundings.

Walls that permit heat flow are called diathermal walls, while walls
that do not permit heat flow are called adiabatic walls.

To understand thermodynamics, it is necessary to describe the state

of a system.

21
 CLOSED, OPEN & ISOLATED SYSTEM
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a
fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

 A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may

cross the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.

 Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks

and piston cylinder devices (note the volume
does not have to be fixed). However, energy
in the form of heat and work may cross the
boundaries of a closed system.
CLOSED, OPEN & ISOLATED SYSTEM
 An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as
energy crossing the boundary, called a control surface.
Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors,
turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.

 An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass

where no heat or work may cross the boundaries.

 An isolated system is a closed system with no energy

crossing the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main
system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and
energy among themselves and no other system.
 INTERNAL ENERGY

 Internal energy, U – the sum of energy of all molecules in a

substance

 Internal energy of an ideal gas is :

 Since we know the average of kinetic energy in terms of

temperature, we can write :
 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Definition :
The change in internal energy, ∆U of a closed system is equal to the
energy added to the system by heating minus the work done by the
system to the surrounding.

U  Q  W
Q is positive when the system gains heat and negative when it loses
heat. W is positive when work is done by the system and negative
work is done on the system.

Sign Convention
1) HEAT : Q (+) : when the system GAIN heat
Q (-) : when the system LOSES heat
2) WORK : W (+) : when it is done BY the system
W (-) : when it is done ON the system
Example 6
The figure shows a system and its surroundings.

(a)The system gains 1500 J of heat from its surroundings,

and 2200 J of work is done by the system on the
surroundings. Determine the change in the internal energy
of the system.

(b) The system also gains 1500 J of heat, but 2200 J of

work is done on the system by surroundings.
Calculate the change in the internal energy of the system.
Solution :

Ans : -700 J, +3700J

 THERMAL PROCESS IN THE FIRST LAW of
THERMODYNAMICS
1) ISOBARIC PROCESS

 Thermodynamics process that occurs at a constant PRESSURE

Pressure (P)

work done : W = P (Vf – Vi)

W = P ΔV
Work done :area under the graph.

Volume (V)

W  F s , F  PA
 PAs , but the product As is the change in volume
of the material . ( As   V  V f  Vi )
 P ( V f  Vi )
Example 7
1.0 g of water is placed in the cylinder and the
pressure is maintained at 2 x 105 Pa. The
temperature of the water is raised by 31oC.
Find the work done and the change in internal
energy if the water is in the liquid phase expand by
the amount of 1 x 10-8 m3.
( cwater = 4186 J/Kg.°C )
Solution :

Ans : 0.002 J, 129.764 J

2) ISOCHORIC PROCESS or ISOVOLUMETRIC

 Thermodynamics process that that occurs at constant VOLUME

Pressure ( P)

The area under the graph is

zero, indicating that no work
is done ( W= 0 J).

Volume (V)

Since no work is done, the heat in an isochoric process serves only to

change the internal energy:
W  Fs
 PA s , s  0
 P (V f  Vi )
0
 3) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

 Thermodynamics process that occurs at constant TEMPERATURE

V 
The work done is; W  nRT ln  f 
V  Pressure ( P)
 i 

The work done = area under graph

The internal energy depends entirely

on the temperature of the system.

Volume (V)

nR T f  Ti 
3
U 
2

If the temperature remains constant,

the change in internal energy
must be zero.
3) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

For higher temperature, the constant (nRT) is bigger resulting the curve
being further away from origin of the axes.

Pressure ( P)

Volume (V)
Example 8
Two moles, of the monatomic gas argon expand isothermally at 298 K,
from an initial volume of Vi = 0.025 m3 to a final volume of Vf = 0.05 m3.
Assuming that argon is an ideal gas, find ;
a)the work done by the gas
b) the change in the internal energy of the gas
c) the heat supplied to the gas.
Solution :

Ans : 3400 J, 0 J, 3400 J

4) ADIABATIC PROCESS

 Thermodynamics process that occurs without the transfer of heat.

When the system performs work adiabatically, no heat flows into or

out of the system (Q = 0 J)
Pressure ( P)

 U  Q W , Q  0J
3
 W , U  nRT
2
U  U f  Ui  W

 nR T f  Ti 
3
2 Volume (V)

  W , T in K temperature
A plot of pressure versus volume yields
the adiabatic curve shown in red, which
intersects the isotherm (blue) at the initial
nR Ti  T f 
3
W  temperature Ti and the final temperature Tf.
2
The work done by the gas is given by the
For processes where the pressure varies, the work done is the area
under the P-V curve.

Isochoric
Example 9
An ideal gas is slowly compressed at a constant pressure of 2.0 atm from
10.0 L to 2.0 L. This process is represented in figure as the path B to D.
Heat is then added to the gas, holding the volume constant and the
pressure and temperature are allowed to rise
(line DA) until the temperature reaches its original
Value ( TA = TB ). Calculate :
a)the total work done by the gas in the process BDA.
b)The total heat flow into the gas

Isochoric
Solution : Isochoric
Solution :
 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Definition:

Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a

substance at a lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the
reverse direction (or it will not flow spontaneously from a cold object to a hot
object.)

HEAT ENGINE
• A heat engine is any device that uses heat to perform work or changes thermal
energy into mechanical work.
• It has three essential features:
1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively high input temperature from a place
called a hot reservoir.
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform work by the engine, which is the material
within the engine that actually does the work (eg: the gasoline – air mixture in an
automobile engine.
3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected to a place called the cold reservoir,
which has a temperature lower than the input temperature.
The 3 features is shown in the Figure. The symbols QH, QL and W refer to
magnitudes only, without reference to algebraic signs. Therefore, when these
symbols appear in an equation, they do not have negative values assigned to
them.
To be highly efficient, a heat engine must produce a relatively large amount of
work from as a little input heat as possible.

W  QH  QL
QH  W  QL

This is a heat engine; mechanical energy can be obtained from thermal energy
only when heat can flow from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
 HEAT ENGINE

Cold reservoir
Hot reservoir
 HEAT ENGINE

 The Carnot engine was created to examine the efficiency of a heat

engine. It is idealized, as it has no friction.
 Each leg of its cycle is reversible.
 The Carnot cycle consists of:
- Isothermal expansion
- Adiabatic expansion
- Isothermal compression
- Adiabatic compression
CARNOT CYCLE
EFFICIENCY, e
Definition: efficiency of heat engine is defined as the ratio of the work, W done by the
engine to the input heat QH.
work done W
e 
input heat QH

Efficiencies are often quoted as percentages obtained by multiplying the ratio W/QH
by a factor 100.
If there are no other losses in the engine, the engine’s input heat, QH is converted into
work, W and the remainder QL is rejected to the cold reservoir.
W = Q H – QL

QH = W + Q L

For an ideal reversible engine, the efficiency can be written in terms of the
temperature:
Example 10
A automobile engine has an efficiency of 22 % and produces 2510 J of
work. How much heat is rejected by the engine?
Solution :
 APPLICATIONS
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
These appliances can be thought of as heat engines operating in
reverse.
Refrigerators, air conditioners, and
heat pumps are devices that make
heat flow from cold to hot. This is
called the refrigeration process.

By doing work, heat is extracted from

the cold reservoir and exhausted to the
hot reservoir.
Refrigerators
 Refrigerators

Refrigerator performance is measured by the coefficient of

performance (COP):

Substituting:
 Heat Pumps

A heat pump can heat a house in the winter: