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Theories of
Adolescence
DEVELOPMENT and
it relations to
Intra-Inter
development
 Aspects of development
 physical development - puberty onwards

Cognitive development - different way and

abilities of processing information

Emotional development – identity, self

concept (Self-concept- The set of beliefs about
oneself, including attributes, roles, goals,
interests, values and religious or political
beliefs and self esteem,
How one feels about one's self-concept)

Social development

Behaviour development
 Cognitive development

As adolescents begin to exercise their new reasoning

skills, some of their behaviors may be confusing for
adults. It is normal for them to:
Argue for the sake of arguing.
 
Jump to conclusions.
 
Be self-centered.
 
Constantly find fault in the adult's position.
 
Be overly dramatic.
 Emotional development

The process of developing a sense of identity involves experimenting

with different ways of appearing, sounding and behaving. Each
adolescent will approach this exploration in his or her own unique
way. 

Adolescents must also develop relationship skills that allow them to

get along well with others and to make friends. The specific skills that
they need to master as part of their emotional development include:
Recognizing and managing emotions.
 
Developing empathy.
 
Learning to resolve conflict constructively.
 
Developing a cooperative spirit.
 Social development
Key Features of Adolescent Social Development
Social Group
Early Adolescence (ages 9-13)
Middle Adolescence (ages 14-16)
Late 
Adolescence 
(ages 17-19)
Peers
Center of social world shifts from family to friends.
 Peer group tends to be same-sex.
 Strong desire to conform to and be accepted by a peer group.
Peer groups gradually give way to one-on-one friendships and romances.
 Peer group tends to be gender-mixed.
 
Dating begins.
 
Less conformity and more tolerance of individual differences.
Serious intimate relationships begin to develop.
Family
Increasing conflict between adolescents and their parents.
 
Family closeness most important protective factor against high-risk behavior.
Family influence in balance with peer influence.
 Behaviour development

All of the developmental changes that adolescents

experience prepare them to experiment with new
behaviors. This experimentation results in risk-taking,
which is a normal part of adolescent development
(Dryfoos, 1998; Hamburg, 1997; Roth & Brooks-Gunn,
2000). Engaging in risk-taking behavior helps
adolescents to:
Shape their identities.
 
Try out their new decision-making skills.
 
Develop realistic assessments of themselves.
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Brief Review of Last week

 Defining intra personal and Interpersonal

One developmental dimension within the

meaning making structure
that pertains to one's internal beliefs and values system
(INTRA)
One developmental dimension within
the meaning making structure that pertains to
how one sees oneself in relation to others
(INTER)
 One developmental dimension within the
meaning making structure
that pertains to one's internal beliefs and values system

 INTRAPERSONAL DIMENSIONS
 Awareness of your interactional style
 Difference between real and ideal self
 Level of self-acceptance
 Extent to which values are satisfied
 Determination of locus of control
 Ability to endure stress and pressure
 Level of frustration tolerance
 Ability to manage anger
 One developmental dimension within
the meaning making structure that pertains to how one
 INTERPERSONAL DIMENSIONS
sees oneself in relation to others
 Acceptance of others
 Level of assertiveness (Forthright, positive,
insistence on the recognition of one's rights”)

 Use of conflict resolution styles

 Listening skills
 Ability to build trust
 The art of self-disclosure
 Offering emotional support
 +
Today

 Major theories in Adolescent

Development
and It relations
to INTER and INTRA development
 +
Issue #1: Nature vs. Nurture
(Adakah inter dan intra
diwarisi atau dipupuk)
 Nature: Biological influences (heritability, genetics)

Examples  growth during childhood; hormones during

puberty

 Nurture: Environmental influences

Examples  influence of nutrition; medical care; family;
peers; schools; community; media; culture

A matter of emphasis – which one is more

important.
 Nature vs NURTURE

SO..what does the theories explain ????

Is inter and intra in born qualities?

(semulajadi)

Or it can be nurtured

(boleh dipupuk?)
 +
Issue #2: Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Continuity: Development involves

gradual, cumulative change
 Development as being quantitative
 Example – A child’s first word

 Discontinuity: Development involves

distinct stages
 Each stage is qualitatively different
the next
 Example – Abstract thinking

Adakah proses berterusan?

Atau terhenti dan mengubah kualiti/hasil
proses?
+
Issue #3: Early vs. Late Experience

 Issue of which ones are the key determinants of

development

 Question: If an infant experiences a negative,

stressful or traumatic circumstance, can this be
overcome by more positive experiences in
adolescence?

 Emphasis has traditionally been on early experience;

now more emphasis on growth and development over
the lifespan (e.g., Jerome Kagan’s work)
 +
Overall…

Best not to take an extreme viewpoint in any of the

three debates

Nonetheless, there continue to be arguments about

the nature of development (particularly for nature
vs. nurture)
Some key points…

1.
2.
3.
 +
Many, Many Theories

 Psychoanalytic Theories
 Psychoanalytic (Freud, etc.)
 Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

 Cognitive Theories
 Cognitive Developmental (Piaget)
 Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
(Vygotsky)
 Information Processing

 Behavioral Theory (Skinner)

 Social Cognitive Theory

Ecological
(Bandura)

Theory(Bronfrenbrenner)
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The Many, Many Theories

 Psychoanalytic Theories
 Psychoanalytic (Freud, etc.)
 Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

 Cognitive Theories
 Cognitive Developmental (Piaget)
 Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
(Vygotsky)
 Information Processing

 Behavioral Theory (Skinner)

 Social Cognitive Theory

Ecological
(Bandura)

Theory(Bronfrenbrenner)
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Psychoanalytic Theory –
Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939)
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Freud emphasis the 䇾 unconscious
䇿

(Really, he meant activity in our minds that is beyond our

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Freud: Parts of the Mind

 Id (unconscious)
 Aggressive and sexual impulses and instincts

 Superego (mostly unconscious)

 The 䇾 conscience, 䇿 moral part of the mind
 Leads to guilt about id impulses

 Ego (mostly conscious)

 䇾 Executive Branch 䇿 of the mind, makes rational
decisions
 Resolves conflicts between the id, superego and
reality

 An Artistic Explanation
 +
Freud on Personality

 Just the tip of the iceberg!

 Tensions between
different parts of the mind
resolved through defense
mechanisms.

 Repression: pushing
unacceptable id impulses
and painful memories into
the unconscious mind
 +
Freud: Psychosexual Stages

Each stage represents the shifting

of the focus of sexual pleasure and
conflict;
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Stages Relevant to Us

 Latency Stage (6 yrs – puberty)

 Sexual impulses are repressed
 Child develops intellectual and social skills

 Genital Stage (puberty on)

 䇾 Sexual reawakening 䇿
Source of sexual pleasure is now outside of the
family
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Some Critiques of Freud

 Overemphasis on sexual
instincts

 Lack of scientific
support

Overly negative image of

people
How can we relate this theory with
inter
and intra development?
+Behaviorist View:
B. F. Skinner (1904-
1990)
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Operant Conditioning

The consequences of an action

produce changes in the probability of
that action occurring again

 Reinforcement: Increases the

likelihood of a behavior

 Punishment: Decreases the

likelihood of a behavior
How can we relate this theory with
inter
and intra development?
 Cognitivist view
(Jean Piaget and Vygotsky)
Focuses on Thinking/thought development
4 stages of cognitive development

Adolesence , 12 and onwards at formal operation stage

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
Abstract thought emerges.
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning.
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information.
 Vygotsky

places a stronger emphasis on social interactions.

Knowledge is not individually constructed, but coconstructed

between two people.

Remembering, problem solving, planning, and abstract

thinking have a social origin.
 Piaget's major contributions

(a) knowledge must be actively constructed by the child;

(b) educators should help children learn how to learn;
(c) learning activities should be matched to the child's level of
conceptual development; and
(d) peer interactions play an important role in the child's
cognitive development.

Piaget's theory also emphasizes the role of teachers in the

learning process as organizers, collaborators, stimulators, and
guides.

Vygotsky emphasizes on teacher and peers

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Social Cognitive Theory:
Albert Bandura
(1925-)
 Behavior is learned through interactions with the
social environment

Reciprocal influences between behavior,

environment and cognition.
 Observational Learning (aka Imitation
+ Modeling)
or

Bobo Doll
How can we relate this theory with
inter
and intra development?
 +
Ecological Theory

Urie Brofrenbrenner
(1917-2005)

Developmental
Psychologist, Co-Founder of
Head Start

Development reflects the

influence of five
Environmental Systems

Emphasis on environment
(vs. biology)
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Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems

 The Individual
 Sex, Race/Ethnicity, Health, Age

 Microsystem
 Settings adolescent spends his/her time; and individuals
within them (Family, Peers, School, Neighborhood)
 Adolescent helps shape these settings

 Mesosystem
 Relationships between different Microsystems
Examples: relationship between school and family
experiences; family and peer experiences
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Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems (cont.)
 Exosystem
Links between adolescents immediate context and settings in which
adolescent does not have an active role
Examples: mother’s experience at work; conflict between teacher
and his wife

 Macrosystem
 Culture – 䇾 behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a
group of people, passed on from generation to generation 䇿
 Examples: Cultural ideas about what the role of a parent should be,
what the role of a teacher should be; laws and practices affecting
adolescents
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Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems (cont.)

 Chronosystem
 Timing of Life Events
 Example:impact of divorce on family functioning
decreases over time
 Historical Circumstances
 Examples: Greater career opportunities for girls;
Greater acceptance of GBLT community

Recent Addition of Biological Influences = Bioecological

Theory
How can we relate this theory with
inter
and intra development?
RELATIONSHIP OF Developmental
theory and
HUMAN behavior theory


1) Intrapersonal level – based on cognitive variables

such as knowledge, motivation, intention,
perception of threat, outcome expectancy,
perceived behavioral control and social pressure
– which shape individual behavior
- Stages of Change Model,
Theory of Reasoned Action
2) Interpersonal level – people learn and
behave not only from their own experiences
but also by observing other’s actions and
through role modeling
- Social Cognitive Theory, Theory of Planned
Behavior

3) Community and Social levels – human

behavior both influences and is influenced by
the social environment
- Diffusion of Innovation Theory, Kanter’s Structural
Theory of Power Organization, Theory of Ecological
Perspective
 Intrapersonal Models

Health Belief Model (Hochbaum et al., 1950s)

 Assumes that individuals make rational choices
when presented with the pros and cons of change

 Behavioral Change is a product of an individual’s

health beliefs which are based on the perceived
susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived
benefits, and perceived barriers

 Change is undertaken when the pros or benefits

of the new behavior outweigh the cons or barriers
to the behavior
 Intrapersonal Models Con’t

Stages of Change Model (Prochaska et al., 1970s)

 Assumes that change occurs gradually, that is,

individuals are often at different levels of
motivation, and should be approached with
behavior interventions that match their level of
readiness to change (importance + confidence)

 Individuals move back and forth through 6 stages

before lasting change is finally achieved:
Precontemplation  Contemplation  Preparation
 Action  Maintenance  Termination
 Intrapersonal Models Con’t

Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

 Proposes that behavior change is a function of

one’s intention to change

 Behavioral intention is a function of attitudes

toward the behavior and subjective norms
- Attitudes, defined as favorable or unfavorable opinions,
arise from a combination of beliefs about its consequences
and evaluations of those consequences
- Subjective Norms are based on normative beliefs, defined
as perceptions of the views of other individuals; and on
motivation to comply, defined as the strength of the
individual’s desire to gain approval of these groups
 Interpersonal Models

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1970s)

 Assumes that an individual’s behavior both

influences and is influenced by their cognitive
processes and their social/physical environment

 Proposes that behavior change is determined by

three types of expectancies:
- Situation-Outcome Expectancies are expectations
that relate to the behavior
- Outcome Expectancies refer to the value of the
behavior change
- Self-Efficacy refers to the belief that one has the
ability to make the change
 Interpersonal Models Con’t

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1988)

 Explains aspects of behavior not under individual control

and assumes that immediate cause of a behavior is intention
to perform the behavior

 Intention is predicted by three variables: attitudes toward

the behavior; subjective norms; and perceived behavioral
control – defined as a person’s perception of the ease or
difficulty in performing the target behavior

 These three variables are in turn predicted by: behavioral

beliefs (consequences of behavior); normative beliefs
(expectations of others); and control beliefs (presence of
obstacles and/or opportunities that may facilitate or impede
performance of the behavior)
+What
had we learnt today?