Diseases Of The

Cervix and The

Vagina
PRESENTED BY:
JUAN CARLO A. LAGMAN
MAU SABADO
CHAMPAGNE ROXAS
KYLE VARGAS
NHATAN ESPINOSA
MARC ANDREI T. NAVARRO
 Contents:

The Vagina:
I. An Introduction
II. Diseases and Symptoms
III. Prevention and Treatment

The Cervix:
IV. An Introduction
V. Diseases and Symptoms
VI. Prevention and Treatment
 Introduction: The Vagina
▪ The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal with a
soft, flexible lining that provides lubrication and
sensation. It connects the uterus to the outside
world.
▪ The vulva and labia form the entrance, and the
cervix of the uterus protrudes into the vagina,
forming the interior end.
▪ The vagina receives the penis during sexual
intercourse and also serves as a conduit for
menstrual flow from the uterus. During childbirth,
the baby passes through the vagina (birth canal).
▪ The hymen is a thin membrane of tissue that
surrounds and narrows the vaginal opening. It
may be torn or ruptured by sexual activity or by
exercise.
Diseases Of The
Vagina
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Herpes
Genitalis
▪ Herpes Genitalis/Genital Herpes
Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). This STD causes
herpetic sores, which are painful blisters (fluid-filled bumps) that can break
open and ooze fluid.
▪ Causes of Genital Herpes
Two types of herpes simplex virus cause genital herpes: HSV-1 (which usually
causes cold sores) and HSV-2 (which usually causes genital herpes). The viruses
get into your body through your mucous membranes, which are the thin layers
of tissue that line the openings of your body. They can be found in your nose,
mouth, and genitals.
Once the viruses are inside your body, they incorporate themselves into your
cells and then stay in the nerve cells of your pelvis. Viruses tend to multiply or
adapt to their environments very easily, which makes treating them difficult.
HSV-1 or HSV-2 can be found in infected people’s bodily fluids, including:
 Saliva
 Semen
 Vaginal Secretions
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Symptoms Of Genital Herpes
Recognizing the symptoms of Genital Herpes
▪ The appearance of blisters is known as an outbreak. Your first outbreak will appear as early as two days after you contracted
the virus, or as late as 30 days afterward.
▪ General symptoms for males include blisters on the penis, scrotum, or buttocks (near or around the anus).
▪ General symptoms for females include blisters around or near the vagina, anus, and buttocks.
▪ General symptoms for both males and females include the following:
o Blisters may appear in your mouth and on your lips, face, and anywhere else that came into contact with the infected areas.
o The infected site often starts to itch, or tingle, before the actual appearance of blisters.
o The blisters may become ulcerated (open sores) and ooze fluid.
o A crust may appear over the sores within a week of the outbreak.
o Your lymph glands may become swollen. Lymph glands fight infection and inflammation in the body.
o You may have headaches, body aches, and fever.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Diagnostic
Treatments

Diagnosing Genital Herpes:

▪ Your doctor can typically diagnose a
herpes infection by a visual
examination of the herpes sores.
Although they aren’t always necessary,
your doctor may confirm their
diagnosis through laboratory tests.
▪ A blood test can diagnose herpes
simplex virus before you experience an
outbreak. Make an appointment with
your doctor if you think you’ve been
exposed to genital herpes, even if you
aren’t experiencing any symptoms yet.
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Medical and Nursing Management
How can Genital Herpes be treated?
▪ Treatment can reduce the outbreaks, but it can’t
cure you of the herpes simplex viruses.
Medications
▪ Antiviral drugs may help speed up the healing
time of your sores and reduce pain. Medications
may be taken at the first signs of an outbreak
(tingling, itching, and other symptoms) to reduce
the symptoms. People who get outbreaks may
also be prescribed medicines to make it less
likely that they’ll get outbreaks in the future.
Home Care
▪ Use mild cleansers when bathing or showering in
warm water. Keep the infected site clean and
dry. Wear loose cotton clothing to keep the area
comfortable.
Treatments for Genital Herpes:
Initial treatment - if you have symptoms such as sores when you're first
diagnosed with genital herpes, your doctor will usually give you a brief course
(seven to 10 days) of antiviral therapy to relieve them or prevent them from
getting worse. Your doctor may keep you on the drugs longer if the sores don't
heal in that times
After the first treatment, work with your doctor to come up with the best way
to take antiviral therapies.
There are two options:
Intermittent treatment - your doctor may prescribe an antiviral drug for you to
keep on hand in case you have another flare-up; this is called intermittent
therapy. You can take the pills for two to five days as soon as you notice sores
or when you feel an outbreak coming on. Sores will heal and disappear on
their own, but taking the drugs can make the symptoms less severe and
make them go away faster.
Suppressive treatment - If you have outbreaks often, you may want to
consider taking an antiviral drug every day. Doctors call this suppressive
therapy. For someone who has more than six outbreaks a year, suppressive
therapy can reduce the number of outbreaks by 70% to 80%. Many people
who take the antiviral drugs daily have no outbreaks at all.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Health
Teachings
What Should I Know If I Am Pregnant And I Have Genital Herpes?
▪ It’s normal to be concerned about the health of your baby when you have any type of STD. Genital
herpes can be spread to your baby if you have an active outbreak during a vaginal delivery. It’s
important to tell your doctor you have genital herpes as soon as you know you’re pregnant.
▪ Your doctor will discuss what to expect before, during, and after you deliver your baby. They can
prescribe pregnancy-safe treatments to ensure a healthy delivery. They may also opt to deliver your
baby via cesarean.
▪ Genital herpes can also cause pregnancy complications like miscarriage or premature birth.
Long-term Outlook For Genital Herpes
▪ You should practice safe sex and use condoms every time you have sex with someone. This will help
prevent genital herpes and other STDs from spreading.
▪ There’s no cure for genital herpes, but the condition can be managed with medication. The disease
stays dormant within your body until something triggers an outbreak. Outbreaks can happen when
you become stressed, sick, or tired. Your doctor will help you come up with a treatment plan that will
help you manage your outbreaks.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Chlamydia

▪ Chlamydia
 Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted
bacterial infection. It affects both men and
women and is spread during sexual
contact.
 It is an infection with Chlamydia
trachomatis bacteria. When an infection is
present, the bacteria can be present in the
cervix, urethra, vagina, and rectum of an
infected person
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Symptoms of Chlamydia

WOMEN: MEN:

Chlamydia symptoms in women Chlamydia symptoms in men

▪ Abdominal pain ▪ a white, cloudy or watery discharge from the penis
▪ Large quantities of vaginal discharge that may be ▪ pain or burning when urinating (peeing)
foul-smelling and yellow
▪ pain and/or swelling in the testicles
▪ bleeding between periods
▪ pain, discharge or bleeding in the anus (bottom).
▪ low-grade fever
▪ painful intercourse, bleeding after intercourse
FOR BOTH MEN AND WOMEN THESE SYMPTOMS
▪ burning with urination MAY INCLUDE:
▪ swelling in the vagina or around the anus ▪ inflammation (redness) of the eye (called
conjunctivitis) caused by infected semen or
▪ needing to urinate more often or discomfort with vaginal fluid getting into your eyes.
urinating
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Diagnostic
Treatment
Diagnosis
▪ Because of the chance of other health problems if you
contract chlamydia trachomatis, ask your doctor how often
you should have chlamydia screening tests if you're at risk.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends
chlamydia screening for:
▪ Sexually Active Women Age 25 Or Younger: The rate of
chlamydia infection is highest in this group, so a yearly
screening test is recommended. Even if you've been tested in
the past year, get tested when you have a new sex partner.
▪ Pregnant Women: You should be tested for chlamydia during
your first prenatal exam. If you have a high risk of infection —
from changing sex partners or from your regular partner's
possible infection — get tested again later in your pregnancy.
▪ Women And Men At High Risk: Consider frequent chlamydia
screening if you have multiple sex partners, if you don't
always use a condom during sex or if you're a man who has
sex with men. Other markers of high risk are current infection
with another sexually transmitted infection and possible
exposure to an STI through an infected partner.
Screening and diagnosis of chlamydia is relatively
simple. Tests include:
▪ A Urine Test: A sample of your urine analyzed in the
laboratory may indicate the presence of this infection.
▪ A Swab: For women, your doctor takes a swab of the
discharge from your cervix for culture or antigen testing
for chlamydia. This can be done during a routine Pap
test. Some women prefer to swab their vaginas
themselves, which has been shown to be as diagnostic
as doctor-obtained swabs.
▪ For Men: your doctor inserts a slim swab into the end
of your penis to get a sample from the urethra. In some
cases, your doctor may swab the anus.
If you've been treated for an initial chlamydia infection,
you should be retested in about three months.
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Medical and Nursing Treatment
▪ Treatment of Chlamydia is very important because, if left The following antibiotics are alternatives recommended by the CDC:
untreated, it can cause long-term health consequences,
▪ erythromycin
including infertility and ectopic pregnancy.
▪ levofloxacin
▪ Antibiotics are effective in treating Chlamydia if the patient
follows the doctor's instructions. In most cases, they will be in ▪ ofloxacin
pill form. Repeat testing 3 to 4 months after treatment may
be recommended, depending on risk factors. Some people might experience side effects after taking antibiotics, including:

Treatments for Chlamydia may include: ▪ diarrhea

▪ Azithromycin: The patient receives just one dose.
▪ Doxycycline: The patient usually takes the pills for 1 week. It
is important that the course is completed to ensure the
infection does not return.
Some patients, such as pregnant women, may be given
alternative antibiotics. Doxycycline or tetracycline may affect
the development of the baby's bones and teeth. Azithromycin
has been shown to be safe and effective .
▪ stomach pain
▪ gastrointestinal issues
▪ nausea
▪ In most cases, the side effects will be mild. Patients taking doxycycline might
have a skin rash if they are exposed to sunlight. If the chlamydia is not treated,
approximately 10 to 15 percent of women will develop pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID).
▪ Treatment of men is equally as important. If it is left untreated, chlamydia can
lead to epididymitis and reactive arthritis. Depending on the test used to
diagnose chlamydia, a person may also be treated for gonorrhea because these
two bacteria often occur together
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Health Teachings
Prevention methods include:
▪ condoms
▪ using a dental dam during oral sex
▪ regular screening
▪ To avoid spreading chlamydia,
individuals should avoid sexual activity
until treatment is complete. If a one-
time dose of antibiotics is prescribed, it
is recommended that people avoid sex
until 7 to 10 days after treatment.
Complications
▪ Early diagnosis and treatment greatly reduce the risk of
complications. Complications can be prevented with regular
screening, or by seeking medical attention as soon as symptoms
appear.
Complications of Chlamydia in women include:
▪ Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID): This is an infection of the
ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus, that can lead to infertility.
Approximately 10 to 15 percent of women will develop PID if
chlamydia is untreated.
▪ Cervicitis: This is an inflammation of the neck of the womb.
▪ Salpingitis: This is an inflammation of the fallopian tubes. There is
a significantly increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.
Complications of Chlamydia in men include:
▪ Urethritis: The urethra, a tube which carries urine from the bladder
to the end of the penis, becomes inflamed.
▪ Epididymitis: This is an inflammation of the epididymis, a structure
inside the scrotum. Signs and symptoms include red, swollen, and
warm scrotum, testicle pain, and tenderness.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Vaginismus
Vaginismus
• which is not the same thing as Vaginitis (an
inflammation of the vagina), is an involuntary
tightening of the vagina due to a conditioned
reflex of the muscles in the area during vaginal
penetration.
• It can affect any form of vaginal penetration,
including sexual intercourse, insertion of tampons
and menstrual cups, and the penetration involved
in gynecological examinations. Various
psychological and physical treatments are
possible to help alleviate it.
• is a condition involving a muscle spasm in the
pelvic floor muscles. It can make it painful,
difficult, or impossible to have sexual intercourse,
to undergo a gynecological exam, and to insert a
tampon.
Types
There are different types of vaginismus that can affect women at different ages.
Primary vaginismus
▪ Vaginismus can lead to stress in a relationship. This is a lifetime condition in which
the pain has always been present. It will be difficult to use a tampon and to
undergo a gynecological exam. It is often experienced by women during their first
attempt at intercourse. The male partner is unable to insert his penis into the
vagina. He may describe a sensation like "hitting a wall" at the vaginal opening.
There may be pain, generalized muscle spasms, and the woman may temporarily
stop breathing. The symptoms are reversed when the attempt at vaginal entry is
stopped.
Secondary vaginismus
▪ This develops after a woman has already experienced normal sexual function. It has
not always been present. It can occur at any stage of life, and it may not have
happened before. It usually stems from a specific event, such as an infection,
menopause, a traumatic event, development of a medical condition, relationship
issues, surgery, or childbirth. Even after any underlying medical condition is
corrected, pain can continue if the body has become conditioned to respond in this
way.
Global vaginismus
▪ Vaginismus is always present, and any object will trigger it.
Situational vaginismus
▪ This occurs only in certain situations. It may happen during sex but not during
gynecological exams or tampon insertion.
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Signs and Symptoms of Vaginismus
Signs
1. Breathing cessation and General
Muscular spasms when attempting
intercourse
2. Pain when inserting a tampon and
undergoing gynecological
examination
3. Difficulty during penetration
4. Dyspareunia or pain during sexual
intercourse
5. Sexual dysfunction
Symptoms
The symptoms vary between individuals and may include:
▪ painful intercourse (dyspareunia), with tightness and pain
that may be burning or stinging
▪ penetration being difficult or impossible
▪ long-term sexual pain with or without a known cause
▪ pain during tampon insertion
▪ pain during a gynecological examination
▪ generalized muscle spasm or breathing cessation during
attempted intercourse
Pain can range from mild to severe in nature and from
discomfort to burning in sensation.
Vaginismus does not prevent people from becoming sexually
aroused, but they may become anxious about sexual
intercourse, so that they try to avoid sex or vaginal
penetration.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Diagnostic
Treatment
Diagnosis Of Vaginismus
Diagnosis of Vaginismus usually begins with describing your symptoms. Your doctor will likely ask when
you first noticed a problem, how often it occurs, and what seems to trigger it. Typically, your doctor will also
ask about your sexual history, which may include questions about whether you’ve ever experienced sexual
trauma or abuse. In general, diagnosis and treatment of vaginismus requires a pelvic exam.
It's common for women with vaginismus to be nervous or fearful about pelvic exams. If your doctor
recommends a pelvic exam, you can discuss ways to make the exam as comfortable as possible for you.
Some women prefer not to use stirrups, and to try different physical positions for the exam. You may feel
more at ease if you can use a mirror to see what your doctor is doing.
When a doctor suspects vaginismus, they will generally perform the exam as gently as they can. They may
suggest that you help guide their hand or medical instruments into your vagina to make penetration easier.
You can ask your doctor to explain every step of the exam to you as they go along.
During the exam, your doctor will look for any sign of infection or scarring. In vaginismus, there is no
physical reason for the vaginal muscles to contract. That means, if you have vaginismus, your doctor won’t
find another cause for your symptoms.
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Medical and Nursing Treatment
Treatment Options For Vaginismus:

Vaginismus is a treatable disorder. Treatment usually includes education, counseling, and exercises.

▪ Sex Therapy And Counseling: Counseling may involve you alone or with your partner. Working with a counselor who specializes in sexual disorders
may be helpful. Relaxation techniques and hypnosis may also promote relaxation and help you feel more comfortable with intercourse.

▪ Vaginal Dilators: Your doctor or counselor may recommend learning to use vaginal dilators under the supervision of a professional.

▪ Kegel Exercises: To perform Kegel exercises, repeatedly tighten and relax your pelvic floor muscles, which control your vagina, rectum, and bladder.

Practicing these exercises helps you control when your muscles contract and relax. Follow these steps:

▪ Empty your bladder.

▪ Contract your pelvic floor muscles, and count to 10.

▪ Relax your muscles, and count to 10.

▪ Repeat this cycle 10 times, three times a day.

▪ To successfully strengthen your pelvic floor muscles, don’t engage the muscles of your abdomen, buttocks, or thighs when doing these exercises.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Health Teachings

▪ Living With Vaginismus

 Sexual dysfunction can take a toll on relationships. Being
proactive and getting treatment can be crucial in saving a
marriage or relationship.
 It’s important to remember that there’s nothing to be
ashamed of. Talking with your partner about your feelings
and fears about intercourse may help you feel more relaxed.
Your doctor or therapist can provide you with ways to
overcome vaginismus. Many people recover and go on to
live happy sexual lives.
 Treatment with a sex therapist may be beneficial. Using
lubrication or certain sexual positions can help make sexual
intercourse more comfortable. Experiment and find out
what works for you and your partner.
 Diseases Of The Vagina: Vaginal
Hypoplasia
Vaginal Hypoplasia What Causes Vaginal Hypoplasia?

▪ is a type of sexual development disorder that is
often associated with kidney, heart, or skeletal
abnormalities.
▪ Such disorders occur when the vagina is
incompletely developed (hypoplasia) or
completely absent (vaginal agenesis).
▪ Although the condition is present at birth, it
mostly remains undiagnosed until a teen
reaches her puberty and realizes that she is not
menstruating.
• Although the exact etiology is unknown, it is believed
that the abnormal development of the Mullerian ducts
during the first 20 weeks of pregnancy may be
responsible for the abnormal vaginal development.
During normal embryonic development, one of the
Mullerian ducts forms the vagina and uterus, and the
other forms the fallopian tubes.
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Signs and Symptoms of Vaginal
Hypoplasia
What Are The Symptoms?
 The signs and symptoms of vaginal hypoplasia are associated with a lack of
menstruation during puberty. This condition is medically known as amenorrhea.
Teens with amenorrhea usually maintain a normal growth and development.
However, they may experience certain medical issues. For example, teens who
have a uterus can suffer from painful amenorrhea, whereas teens without a
uterus, who do not menstruate, can experience painless amenorrhea.

 Since the vagina is absent or incomplete, an accumulation of menstrual flow

can occur in teens with a uterus because of a lack of connection between the
uterus and vaginal canal. This can lead to monthly cramping and abdominal
pain.

 Vaginal hypoplasia/agenesis can also affect the sextual activities and fertility,
depending on the organs affected. It may be possible for a teen with a normal-
sized uterus to become pregnant and deliver a baby. A teen with healthy ovaries
can also have a baby via in vitro fertilization, using a gestational carrier
(surrogate mother).
 Diseases Of The Vagina:
Medical and Nursing Treatment
What Are The Treatment Options?

▪ Treatment for vaginal hypoplasia/agenesis mainly includes creating a vagina. A teen usually seeks medical help during her
teenage years. The mode of treatment depends primarily on the clinical characteristics of a patient.

▪ The most effective and standard treatment for teens with MRKH is self-dilation. In this method, a rod-like plastic structure (dilator)
is pressed against the skin (where a vagina should be present) for 15 - 30 minutes a day. It helps stretch the vagina to a normal
length without undergoing a surgery.

▪ If self-dilation does not work, a doctor may recommend surgery to create a functional vagina (vaginoplasty).

▪ In skin graft method, skin from patient’s buttocks is used to create a vagina. An incision is made in the vaginal area, and the skin
graft is inserted to make the structure. Next, a mold is placed in the newly formed vaginal canal. The mold is removed after a week
of surgery.

▪ In bowel vaginoplasty, a portion of the lower colon is diverted to a genital area opening to create a vagina. The remaining colon is
reconnected afterward. A mold is placed in the newly formed vaginal canal for 3 days.

▪ In the Vecchietti procedure, an olive-shaped medical device is placed in the vaginal opening. Using a laparoscope as a guide, the
device is connected to a separate traction device located on the lower abdomen. A patient needs to tighten the traction device
every day to gradually pull the olive-shaped device inward. This will help create a vagina within a week.
Diseases Of The Cervix
 Introduction: The Cervix

The Cervix

▪ is the lower part of the uterus, the place where a baby grows during
pregnancy. The cervix has a small opening that expands during
childbirth. It also allows menstrual blood to leave a woman's body.

▪ Your health care provider may perform a Pap test during your health
checkup to look for changes to the cells of the cervix, including cervical
cancers. Other problems with the cervix include:

 Cervicitis - inflammation of the cervix. This is usually from an infection.

 Cervical incompetence - This can happen during pregnancy. The

opening of the cervix widens long before the baby is due.

 Cervical polyps and cysts - abnormal growths on the cervix

 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervicitis

Cervicitis

▪ is an inflammation of the cervix, the lower, narrow end of the uterus

that opens into the vagina.

▪ Possible symptoms of cervicitis include bleeding between menstrual

periods, pain with intercourse or during a cervical exam, and abnormal
vaginal discharge. However, it's also possible to have cervicitis and not
experience any signs or symptoms.

▪ Often, cervicitis results from a sexually transmitted infection, such as

chlamydia or gonorrhea. Cervicitis can develop from noninfectious
causes, too. Successful treatment of cervicitis involves treating the
underlying cause of the inflammation.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervicitis

Symptoms
Most often, cervicitis causes no signs and symptoms, and you may only learn you have the condition after a
pelvic exam performed by your doctor for another reason. If you do have signs and symptoms, they may
include:
▪ Large amounts of unusual vaginal discharge
▪ Frequent, painful urination
▪ Pain during intercourse
▪ Bleeding between menstrual periods
▪ Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, not associated with a menstrual period
▪ When to see a doctor
▪ See your doctor if you have:
▪ Persistent, unusual vaginal discharge
▪ Nonmenstrual vaginal bleeding
▪ Pain during intercourse
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervicitis

▪ Causes
▪ Possible causes of cervicitis include:
▪ Sexually transmitted infections. Most often, the bacterial and viral infections that cause cervicitis are transmitted
by sexual contact. Cervicitis can result from common sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including gonorrhea,
chlamydia, trichomoniasis and genital herpes.
▪ Allergic reactions. An allergy, either to contraceptive spermicides or to latex in condoms, may lead to cervicitis. A
reaction to feminine hygiene products, such as douches or feminine deodorants, also can cause cervicitis.
▪ Bacterial overgrowth. An overgrowth of some of the bacteria that are normally present in the vagina (bacterial
vaginosis) can lead to cervicitis.
▪ Risk factors
▪ You're at greater risk of cervicitis if you:
▪ Engage in high-risk sexual behavior, such as unprotected sex, sex with multiple partners or sex with someone who
engages in high-risk behaviors
▪ Began having sexual intercourse at an early age
▪ Have a history of sexually transmitted infections
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervicitis

▪ Complications
▪ Your cervix acts as a barrier to keep bacteria and viruses from entering your uterus. When the
cervix is infected, there's an increased risk that the infection will travel into your uterus.
▪ Cervicitis that's caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia can spread to the uterine lining and the
fallopian tubes, resulting in pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), an infection of the female
reproductive organs that can cause fertility problems if left untreated.
▪ Cervicitis can also increase the risk of a woman getting HIV from an infected sexual partner.
▪ Prevention
▪ To reduce your risk of cervicitis from sexually transmitted infections, use condoms
consistently and correctly each time you have sex. Condoms are very effective against the
spread of STIs, such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, which can lead to cervicitis. Being in a long-
term relationship in which both you and your uninfected partner are committed to having sex
with each other exclusively can lower your odds of an STI.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Incompetent
Cervix
▪ An incompetent cervix, also called a cervical insufficiency, occurs when
weak cervical tissue causes or contributes to premature birth or the loss of
an otherwise healthy pregnancy.
▪ Before pregnancy, your cervix — the lower part of the uterus that opens to
the vagina — is normally closed and firm. As pregnancy progresses and you
prepare to give birth, the cervix gradually softens, decreases in length
(effaces) and opens (dilates). If you have an incompetent cervix, your cervix
might begin to open too soon — causing you to give birth too early.
▪ An incompetent cervix can be difficult to diagnose and treat. If your cervix
begins to open early, or you have a history of cervical insufficiency, your
doctor might recommend preventive medication during pregnancy,
frequent ultrasounds or a procedure that closes the cervix with strong
sutures (cervical cerclage).
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Incompetent
Cervix
Symptoms
▪ If you have an incompetent cervix, you may not have any signs or symptoms
during early pregnancy. Some women have mild discomfort or spotting over the
course of several days or weeks starting between 14 and 20 weeks of pregnancy.
▪ Be on the lookout for:
▪ A sensation of pelvic pressure
▪ A new backache
▪ Mild abdominal cramps
▪ A change in vaginal discharge
▪ Light vaginal bleeding
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Incompetent
Cervix
Risk Factors
▪ Many women don't have a known risk factor. Risk factors for cervical insufficiency include:
▪ Cervical trauma. Some surgical procedures used to treat cervical abnormalities associated with an
abnormal Pap smear can result in cervical insufficiency. Other surgical procedures such as a D&C could also
be associated with cervical insufficiency. Rarely, a cervical tear during a previous labor and delivery could be
associated with an incompetent cervix.
▪ Race. Black women seem to have a higher risk of developing cervical insufficiency. It isn't clear why.
▪ Congenital conditions. Uterine abnormalities and genetic disorders affecting a fibrous type of protein that
makes up your body's connective tissues (collagen) might cause an incompetent cervix. Exposure to
diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic form of the hormone estrogen, before birth also has been linked to
cervical insufficiency.
Complications
▪ An incompetent cervix poses risks for your pregnancy — particularly during the second trimester — including:
▪ Premature birth
▪ Pregnancy loss
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Incompetent
Cervix
Prevention
▪ You can't prevent an incompetent cervix — but there's much you can do to promote a healthy, full-term
pregnancy. For example:
▪ Seek regular prenatal care. Prenatal visits can help your doctor monitor your health and your baby's
health. Mention any signs or symptoms that concern you, even if they seem silly or unimportant.
▪ Eat a healthy diet. During pregnancy, you'll need more folic acid, calcium, iron and other essential
nutrients. A daily prenatal vitamin — ideally starting a few months before conception — can help fill any
dietary gaps.
▪ Gain weight wisely. Gaining the right amount of weight can support your baby's health. A weight gain of 25
to 35 pounds (about 11 to 16 kilograms) is often recommended for women who have a healthy weight
before pregnancy.
▪ Avoid risky substances. If you smoke, quit. Alcohol and illegal drugs are off-limits, too. In addition, get your
doctor's OK before taking any medications or supplements — even those available over-the-counter.
▪ If you've had an incompetent cervix during one pregnacy, you're at risk of premature birth or pregnancy
loss in later pregnancies. If you're considering getting pregnant again, talk with your doctor to understand
the risks and what you can do to promote a healthy pregnancy.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps

What are Cervical Polyps?

▪ Cervical Polyps are small, elongated tumors that grow on the cervix. The cervix
is the narrow canal at the bottom of the uterus that extends into the vagina.
The cervix connects the uterine cavity and the upper portion of the vagina. It
acts as the passageway for sperm to fertilize an egg, which could result in
pregnancy. During labor, the cervix becomes thinner and wider. This allows the
baby to pass through the birth canal.
▪ Polyps are fragile structures that grow from stalks rooted on the surface of the
cervix or inside of the cervical canal. If someone has polyps, usually only one
polyp is present, and two or three at most.
▪ Cervical polyps are usually benign, or not cancerous, and cervical cancer rarely
arises from them. Most cervical cancers are due to the human papilloma virus
(HPV), which is also the cause of genital warts.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps

Symptoms Of Cervical Polyps

Polyps on the cervix may not cause any noticeable symptoms. However, see your gynecologist right away if you experience vaginal
discharge of white or yellow mucus, or abnormally heavy periods.
You should also call your doctor if you experience vaginal spotting or bleeding:
▪ after sexual intercourse
▪ between periods
▪ after douching
▪ after menopause
Some of these symptoms can also be signs of cancer. In rare cases, polyps represent an early phase of cervical cancer. Removing them
helps reduce this risk.
Ask your doctor how often you should get regular pelvic exams and Pap tests. Recommendations can vary depending on your age and
health history.
Why polyps occur?
It isn’t fully understood why cervical polyps occur. Their formation may be linked to:
increased levels of estrogen, which is the female sex hormone
chronic inflammation of the cervix, vagina, or uterus
clogged blood vessels
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps
Inflammation
An inflamed cervix appears red, irritated, or eroded. Some of the known causes of cervical inflammation include:
▪ bacterial infection
▪ HPV infection, which can also cause warts
▪ herpes
▪ yeast infections
▪ pregnancy
▪ miscarriage
▪ abortion
▪ hormonal changes
▪ How cervical polyps are diagnosed
Polyps are easy for your doctor to see during a routine pelvic exam. Your doctor will see smooth, fingerlike growths on the cervix that appear red or purple.
The two types of cervical polyps are ectocervical and endocervical.
Ectocervical polyps arise from the outer surface layer of cells on the cervix. Endocervical polyps arise from the cervical glands, and they’re the most common
type of cervical polyp. Postmenopausal women are more likely to have ectocervical polyps, and premenopausal woman are more likely to have endocervical
polyps.
Biopsies, or tissue samples, of the polyps are taken and sent to a laboratory for testing. Results usually show benign polyp cells. In rare cases, abnormal cells
or precancerous patterns of growth known as neoplastic changes may be present.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps
Inflammation
An inflamed cervix appears red, irritated, or eroded. Some of the known causes of cervical inflammation include:
▪ bacterial infection
▪ HPV infection, which can also cause warts
▪ herpes
▪ yeast infections
▪ pregnancy
▪ miscarriage
▪ abortion
▪ hormonal changes
▪ How cervical polyps are diagnosed
Polyps are easy for your doctor to see during a routine pelvic exam. Your doctor will see smooth, fingerlike growths on the cervix that appear red or purple.
The two types of cervical polyps are ectocervical and endocervical.
Ectocervical polyps arise from the outer surface layer of cells on the cervix. Endocervical polyps arise from the cervical glands, and they’re the most common
type of cervical polyp. Postmenopausal women are more likely to have ectocervical polyps, and premenopausal woman are more likely to have endocervical
polyps.
Biopsies, or tissue samples, of the polyps are taken and sent to a laboratory for testing. Results usually show benign polyp cells. In rare cases, abnormal cells
or precancerous patterns of growth known as neoplastic changes may be present.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps

Treatment Of Cervical Polyps

Sometimes, cervical polyps will disconnect from the cervix on their own. This can occur while a woman is menstruating or during sexual intercourse.
Doctors don’t routinely remove cervical polyps unless they cause symptoms. Removing cervical polyps is a simple procedure that your doctor can
perform in their office. No pain medication is necessary. Methods for removing cervical polyps include:
▪ twisting the polyp off at the base
▪ tying surgical string around the base of the polyp and cutting it away
▪ using ring forceps to remove the polyp
▪ Methods to destroy the base of the polyp include the use of:
▪ liquid nitrogen
▪ electrocautery ablation, which involves using an electrically heated needle
▪ laser surgery
You may feel a brief, mild pain during removal and mild to moderate cramps for a few hours afterward. Spotting of blood from the vagina may occur
for one or two days after removal.
In some instances, the polyps or the polyp stems are too large to remove in a doctor’s office. If this is the case, you may need to have surgery to
remove the cervical polyp in a hospital or surgery in a hospital or surgery center.
The outlook for people with cervical polyps is excellent. Once the doctor removes them, they don’t usually grow back.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Cervical Polyps

Recovery And Prevention

▪ Polyp removal is a simple, safe, and noninvasive procedure. However, if you’ve ever
had polyps, you’re at increased risk of developing them again. Getting regular pelvic
exams helps ensure finding any growths early in their development.
▪ Since some infections are linked to cervical polyps, a few simple steps may help
reduce your risk. Wear cotton underwear that allows good air circulation. This prevents
excess heat and moisture, which is the perfect environment for infections. Also, use
a condom during intercourse.
▪ Be sure to get regular pelvic exams and Pap tests. How frequently you should get Pap
tests depends on your overall health history and age. Your doctor can recommend the
amount of time, which usually is anywhere from three to five years for women who
haven’t had a history of abnormal Pap results.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Nabothian Cyst

What Is A Nabothian Cyst?

▪ Nabothian cysts are tiny cysts that form on the surface of your cervix. Your cervix connects your vagina to your
uterus. It’s sometimes called the cervical canal.
▪ Nabothian cysts are filled with mucus that is secreted by the cervical glands. Sometimes the tiny bumps are
called cervical cysts, mucinous retention cysts, or epithelial cysts.
▪ Nabothian cysts are fairly common. They aren’t a threat to your health, and they aren’t a sign of cervical cancer.
Causes Of Nabothian Cysts
▪ Nabothian cysts form when the mucus-producing glands in your cervix are coated with skin cells and become
clogged. The skin cells plug the glands, which causes mucus to accumulate. This causes a cyst to form on the
cervix that looks like a small, white bump.
▪ Childbirth and physical trauma to the cervix can cause nabothian cystsTrusted Source in some women.
During childbirth, excess skin cells can grow on the mucus gland and trap mucus, causing cysts to form. Physical
trauma around the cervix can cause excess tissue to develop on top of mucus glands during the healing process
and trap mucus, which can also cause these cysts to occur. Cysts caused by physical trauma are especially
common during recovery from chronic cervicitis, in which cervix tissue is inflamed.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Nabothian Cyst
Risk Factors For Nabothian Cysts
▪ You’re most likely to develop these cysts if you’re pregnant or of childbearing age. Childbearing age lasts
from puberty until the onset of menopause, which in some cases can happen as late as your 40s or 50s.
▪ You might also be at risk for developing similar cysts if you have a condition called adenoma malignum.
This condition is a type of neoplasia that affects mucus production in your cervix, and these cysts are often
identical to nabothian cysts. Talk to your doctor about being screened for adenoma malignum if you’re
concerned that your nabothian cyst might be a result of this condition rather than other causes.
Symptoms Of Nabothian Cysts
▪ Nabothian cysts range in size from a few millimeters to 4 centimetersTrusted Source in diameter. They’re
smooth and appear white or yellow in color. Your doctor may notice one or more cysts during a
routine pelvic examination. These cysts don’t cause pain, discomfort, or other symptoms, so it’s likely that
your doctor will discover any cysts while examining your cervix for other problems.
▪ Talk to your doctor if you have bleeding between your periods, unusual discharge, or pelvic pain. These
symptoms may indicate an infection or other abnormality that requires evaluation.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Nabothian Cyst
Diagnosing Nabothian Cysts
▪ Nabothian cysts can be screened and diagnosed during a pelvic examination. They can sometimes be seen on
a pelvic ultrasound, MRI, or CT scan that looks at the cervix. After discovering these small white bumps on your
cervix, your doctor may break a cyst to confirm the diagnosis.
▪ Your doctor can also use a colposcopy to make an accurate diagnosis. This involves magnifying the area to
distinguish nabothian cysts from other types of bumps.
▪ Your doctor may take a biopsy of a cyst if they suspect that you might have a type of neoplasia affecting mucus
production. This condition, called adenoma malignum, is very rare and is not a cause for concern.
Treatment For Nabothian Cysts
▪ Nabothian cysts are benign and usually don’t require treatment. In rare cases, the cysts may become large and
distort the shape and size of your cervix. If it’s severe, it can make a routine cervical examination difficult or
impossible. In this case, your doctor may recommend removal of the cyst in order to examine your cervix.
▪ It’s important that your doctor perform a complete examination of the cervix during routine visits. These
examinations can ensure your reproductive health and help your doctor identify problems with your cervix early.
 Diseases Of The Cervix: Nabothian Cyst
Surgeries And Procedures For Nabothian Cysts:
▪ Nabothian cysts that need treatment can be removed through an excision or through a
process called “electrocautery ablation.” During an excision, your doctor uses a scalpel or
blade to remove the growth.
▪ During electrocautery ablation, your doctor uses an electric current to remove the cyst.
The electric current produces heat that your doctor runs back and forth over the cyst. In
some cases, your doctor may drain fluid from a cyst. They may recommend this method
because of the very minimal blood loss that happens during this procedure.
▪ Your doctor may use cryotherapy to remove a cyst. In this procedure, your doctor uses
liquid nitrogen to freeze and shatter the cyst. This procedure is less invasive than excision
or ablation.
▪ Talk to your doctor about what treatment works best in your case, depending on the size
and distribution of cysts in your cervix.