In order to have continuous (full) note, use

laptop computers or print it !

 UNIT 4
Electromagnetism
“A physical understanding is a completely unmathematical, imprecise, and
inexact thing, but absolutely necessary for a physicist” Richard Feynman
Lesson -1- Magnetism
 Since ancient times, certain materials, called magnets, have been known
to have the property of attracting tiny pieces of metal. This attractive
property is called magnetism.
 Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion cause by the movement
of charged particles.
 Magnetic Poles :
1. A region on a magnet which produces magnetic forces
2. The poles of a suspended magnet will align themselves to the
poles of the Earth
3. Fundamental Rule: Like poles repel; opposite poles attract
4. Magnetic poles behave similarly to electric charges EXCEPT:
i. Electric charges can be isolated
ii. Magnetic poles cannot(there is no monopole)
 Make a magnet(Magnetization)
i. by stroking
ii. by using DC coil carrying current
iii. by tapping while aligned with the Earth’s field
 Demagnetize a magnet
i. by dropping or banging randomly
ii. by heating
iii. by applying a diminishing AC current
 Ways of identifying the polarity of a magnet
i. by using compass
ii. by using iron filings
iii. by color coding system
Magnetic domains: regions within a magnetic material which have uniform
magnetization. They are Clusters of aligned atoms.
 A magnetic domain is region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped
together and aligned. They are indicated by the arrows in the metal material.
 Atoms themselves have magnetic properties due to the spin of the atom’s
electrons.
 Groups of atoms join so that their magnetic fields are all going in the same
direction.
 These areas of atoms are called “domains”
 When the domains are lined up, then the material is magnetic.
 If the domains are arranged randomly, then the material loses its magnetism.

Magnetic shielding limiting the penetration of magnetic fields using a

barrier of conductive material.
Some materials can be used as magnetic shields to protect equipment from
becoming magnetized.
A magnetic field is a region in which a body with magnetic properties
experiences a force.
 Magnetic fields are created two ways:
i. By moving charges (currents)
ii. Intrinsic property of elementary particles
 Properties of Magnetic Field Lines
i. Magnetic lines of force never intersect(cross) each other.
ii. By convention, magnetic lines of force point from north to south outside a
magnet (and from south to north inside a magnet).
iii. Field lines converge where the magnetic force is strong, and spread out
where it is weak.
iv. The direction of the magnetic field at any point is tangent to the
magnetic field line at that point
Earth’s Magnetic Field
 Currents in the molten part of Earth beneath the crust create the Earth’s
magnetic field.
= Moving charges loop within the Earth
 Earth’s magnetic field is not stable
= Magnetic pole and geographic pole are offset
 Magnetic Declination: Difference between geographic and magnetic poles

Earth’s field looks similar to what we’d expect if

there were a giant bar magnet imbedded inside
it, but the dipole axis of this magnet is offset
from the axis of rotation by 11.5°. Also, the south
pole of this magnet is near the geographic north
pole, Ng. A compass points in the direction of the
magnetic north pole, Nm, around which the field
lines reenter Earth’s surface. (Magnetic north is
actually the south pole of Earth’s magnetic
dipole.) The field is likely due to the motion of
charged particles in the fluid outer core, and it
protects us from an otherwise deadly solar wind.
Magnetic Forces (F) on a moving Charge
 If we perform such an experiment by placing a particle with charge q in
the magnetic field, we find the following results that are similar to those
for experiments on electric forces:
• The magnetic force is proportional to the charge q of the particle.
• The magnetic force on a negative charge is directed opposite to the
force on a positive charge moving in the same direction.
• The magnetic force is proportional to the magnitude of the
magnetic field (B).
 We also find the following results, which are totally different from those
for experiments on electric forces:
• The magnetic force is proportional to the speed V of the particle.
• If the velocity V makes an angle u with the magnetic field, the
magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to sinθ.
• When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field, the
magnetic force on the charge is zero.
• When a charged particle moves in a direction not parallel to the
magnetic field, the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to
both V and B
 The force exerted on a charged particle by a magnetic field is given by:
F = q V x B , where
F = force
q = charge on the particle
v = velocity of the particle relative to field
B = magnetic field
  The magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged particle is
F= qvB sin, is the angle b/n B and V
The SI-unit of magnetic field strength(B) is Tesla(T), named after Nickola Tesla.
1T= 1N.Sec/C.m= 1N/A.m
 The direction of the magnetic force on a moving charge is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, and also perpendicular to the velocity of the particle!

Example
An electron in an old-style television picture tube moves toward the front of the
tube with a speed of 8.0 x 106 m/s along the x axis. Surrounding the neck of the
tube are coils of wire that create a magnetic field of magnitude 0.025 T, directed at
an angle of 60 degree to the x axis and lying in the xy plane. Calculate the magnetic
force on the electron.
F= qvB sin =(1.6 x 10-19 C)(8.0 x 106 m/s)(0.025 T)(sin 60°)
= 5 2.8 x 10-14 N
  A static electric charge does not “feel” a magnetic field. No magnetic force is
exerted on it.
 If an electric charge moves, it generates its own magnetic field, which interacts
with the original magnetic field, so a magnetic field exerts a force on a moving
electric charge.
 As the particle changes the direction of its velocity in response to the magnetic
force, the magnetic force remains perpendicular to the velocity. The particle of
charge q moves in a circle because the magnetic force F is perpendicular to velocity
v and magnetic filed strength B and has a constant magnitude qvB.
The force therefore acts as a centripetal force and so the particle follows a circular
path. You know that F = qvB and F =
where q is the charge on the particle,
v is the velocity of the particle, B is the
strength of the magnetic field and
r is the radius of the circular path.

F = qvB =
B=
 
We can also find the period, T, since

The frequency, f, is the inverse of the period so

The angular velocity, ω, is 2πf, so

ω = 2πf=
#. An electron with velocity 3 ×107 m/s describes a circular
path in a uniform magnetic field of 0.2T, perpendicular to it.
Me= 9.11x10-31kg, q= 1.6x10-19c
Calculate its
a) radius of the path (answer 8.5 × 10–4 m)
b) period
c) frequency
d) angular velocity
 The motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields

 Particles can move in both magnetic and electric fields. If a particle is

simply moving in an electric field, then you know that
F = Eq , where F = force experienced by the particle
E = strength of the magnetic field and
q = charge on the particle.
 There are useful devices that use a combination of electric and magnetic
fields. When the force on a particle as a result of the electric field is the
same as the force on the particle as a result of the magnetic field
F = Eq = qvBsin θ, Hence
v=   𝐄
𝐁𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

# Find the speed of an electron travelling at 90° to the electric and

magnetic fields in a velocity selector operating with an electric field
of 3.0 Kv/m and a magnetic field of 3.0 T.
Magnetic Force on an Electric Current carrying wire
  If a magnetic field exerts a force on a moving charge, a magnetic field must exert
a force on a current-carrying wire.
 The strength of the magnetic field, which is given the symbol B, produced by a
current-carrying wire, depends on:
• the force, F
• the current flowing through the wire, I
• the length of the wire, L.
 The relationship is given by the formula
 We know that the force on a charge travelling in a magnetic field is given by
F = Bqvsin θ.
For a charge q travelling a length l in the wire,
we can substitute for speed v so the
equation becomes F = Bq()sin θ
F = BILsin θ, Where I=q/t

# A wire of length 6 cm makes an angle of 20° with a 3 mT magnetic field. What

current is needed to cause an upward force of 1.5 x N?
I = = = 2.44A
 
Consider a current I in a straight wire of infinite length.
 The magnetic field lines are concentric circles
in planes perpendicular to the wire.
 The magnitude of the magnetic field at distance r
from the center of the wire is
B = , µ= Permeability of free space
= 4πxTm/A
 Permeability is the degree of magnetization that a material
obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
 The magnetic field strength is proportional to the
current I and inversely proportional to the distance r from the center of the wire.
 The magnetic field vector is tangential to the circular
field lines and directed according to the right-hand rule.
 The right-hand thumb rule: Grasp wire with right hand; point thumb in direction
of I. Fingers wrap wire in direction of the circular B-field.
#. Calculate what the strength of the magnetic field would have been 10 cm from
the wire in your experiment if your wire had been carrying a current of 2 A. The
permeability of free space is 4π × 10−7 T m/A.
The magnetic force between two wires
 If two identical parallel wires each carry current, as shown in Figure,
then each will exert a force F on the other. I1 I2
  The magnetic field in wire 2 from I is given by;
1

 The force on length L of wire 2 is given by

F = BI2L F F L
 The force per unit length in terms of the
currents is therefore

 We can rearrange this to give r

 #. Calculate the force between two parallel wires each of 1 m in length that
are 1 m apart when each carries a current of 1 A. The permeability of free
space is 4π × 10−7 T m/A.
 Magnetic field of a current carrying circular loop
 Consider a circular loop carrying
current as shown. Then the direction
of the magnetic field due to the loop
I
...

is determined by using right hand rule.

X
Dot(.)= out of the page X
X
X = into the page
Current carrying loop Its magnetic field

  The magnetic field strength at the center of a circular loop of N

turns, radius R and carrying current I is obtained by ;

#. A circular coil of wire 0.05m in radius, with 30 turns carries a

current of 5A. What is the magnetic field strength at its center?
 
Magnetic field of a solenoid
 Solenoid a coil of wire in which a magnetic field is created by
passing a current through it.
 Solenoids are one of the most common electromagnets.
 An ideal solenoid has a perfectly uniform magnetic field
inside and zero field outside.
 The greater the current and the more turns per unit length,
the greater the field inside.
 The strength of the magnetic field in a solenoid depends on:
• the number of turns of wire per meter of length, n.
• the permeability of free space, μ.
• the current flowing through the wire, I.
 The magnetic field strength of a solenoid is given by;
, Where
 
Magnetic field of a solenoid
 Right hand grip rule: Wrap fingers around solenoid in direction
of current; thumb indicates N pole.

N S

#. A 50 cm long solenoid has 3 layers of windings of 250 turns each.

The radius of the lowest layer is 2cm. If the current through it is 4.0 A,
calculate the magnitude of B (a) near the center of the solenoid on
and about the axis; (b) near the ends on its axis; and (c) outside the
solenoid near the middle.
Answers
b) Bend = 1/2B
c) Bout = 0T
 Electromagnet
 A magnet created by electricity is called an electromagnet.
The magnetic field around an electromagnet is the same as
one around a bar magnet.
 Large, powerful electromagnets are used for lifting cars in
recycling Centre's, steel works and scrapyards.
 A stronger electromagnet;
i. Use iron or steel core (increasing permeability, µ)
ii. Increase the current, I
iii. Increase wraps or turns of solenoid, N.
 Why are electromagnets used
instead of permanent magnets?
 
Force on a rectangular current-carrying wire
Consider a rectangular loop of wire in a uniform magnetic field, as
shown in the figure below. The sides with length (a) are parallel to the
magnetic field and so they do not experience a force since sin θ = 0.
The sides with length (b) are perpendicular to the magnetic field and
so each will experience a force of magnitude
F = BIb (sin θ = 1 for these sides)
However, since the direction of the current is opposite on each side,
the direction of the force will be opposite so there is no net force.
However, there will be a resultant torque, τ. The turning effect of a
force is called torque(τ). The torque on a rectangular loop of area A
having N turns, carrying a current I and making an angle θ with the
magnetic field is given by:
τ = F + F = Fa = Biba
τ = BIA, Where area A=ab
b
In general, torque (τ)
τ= NBIAsin θ a
#.Find the torque on a loop of wire of area 10 cm 2 at 60° to a
magnetic field of strength 30 mT with a current of 2 A flowing
through it.
τ = IBAsin θ
= 2 × 30 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−4 × 0.866
= 5.196 × 10−5 N m
#1. Find the torque on a loop of wire of area 8 cm 2 at 45° to a
magnetic field of strength 60 mT with a current of 4.5 A flowing
through it.
#2. What is the force on a a rectangular current-carrying coil in a
magnetic field of 0.2 T, with a current of 1 A, an area of 0.025 m 2
and 100 turns?
#3. A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40 cm 3 8.50 cm consists of
25 turns of wire and carries a current of 15.0 mA. A 0.350-T
magnetic field is applied parallel to the plane of the coil. What is
the magnitude of the torque acting on the loop?
 Electric Motor
 It is a device which is used to convert electrical energy to
mechanical movement using the magnetic force on a
moving charge to move the coil
 An electric motor uses the sideways push of a magnetic
field to turn a current-carrying wire loop. An electric motor
uses brushes and an armature to reverse the flow of
current so that the coil of wire can rotate 360o.
 Alternating current
electric motors do
not use commutators.
 Magnetic flux (Ф)
 The word flux comes from a Latin word meaning “flow”.
 Is a measure of the amount of magnetic field lines going
through an area. If the field is uniform, flux is given by
ФB = B · A = B A cos
 It is a scalar physical quantity. B
 Its SI-unit is weber(Wb), named
after Wilhelm Eduard Weber.
1Wb= 1Tm2
#. Find the magnetic flux when a magnetic field of strength
2 T covers an area of 2 m2.
ФB = B A
= 2TX2m2
= 4Wb
 Electromagnetic induction(dynamo effect)
 Experimental results
1. A current appears only if there is relative motion between the loop
and the magnet (one must move relative to the other); the current
disappears when the relative motion between them ceases.
2. Faster motion produces a greater current.
3. If moving the magnet’s north pole toward the loop causes, say,
clockwise current, then moving the north pole away causes
counterclockwise current.
4. Moving the south pole toward or away from the loop also causes
currents, but in the reversed directions.
 
Electromagnetic induction is the production
of voltage across a conductor moving through
a stationary magnetic field.
 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that “The
magnitude of the emf(𝜺) induced in a conducting loop is equal to
the rate at which the magnetic flux through the loop changes with
time ”
Mathematically
(Faraday’s Law)
 The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on:
• the strength of the magnetic field (stronger magnetic field
means larger e.m.f.)
• the speed at which you move the wire through the magnetic
field (greater speed means greater e.m.f.)
• if you coil the wire so that more wire is influenced by the
magnetic field, you will induce a greater e.m.f.
 
Lenz’s law states that “the direction of the
induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the change
creating it.”

For a coil with N turns this can be written as:

, since Φ = BA for a coil of area A
 The negative sign here indicates the emf opposes
the change in flux.
 Therefore, if the magnetic field is increasing, the
magnetic field created by the induced current
will be in the opposite direction; if decreasing, it
will be in the same direction.
#. A coil has an area of 16 cm2 and has 450 turns.
Calculate the induced e.m.f. in the coil when the
flux density through the coil changes at a rate of
0.5 T/s.

=
 Class Activity
#1. A uniform magnetic field makes a right angle with the
plane of a circular coil of 300 turns and a radius of 4 cm. The
magnitude of the magnetic field increases at a rate of 85 T/s
while its direction remains fixed.
a) Find the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil.
b) If the resistance of the coil is 200Ω, what is the
induced current?
#2. The induced emf in a circuit is proportional to the
magnetic flux through the circuit.(True/False)
#3. There can be an induced emf at an instant when the flux
through the circuit is zero.(True/False)
#4. The magnetic field strength through the coil of area
0.2m2 changes from 800mT to 200mT within 40ms. Find the
induced emf in the coil.
 Self-inductance(L)
 The magnetic flux through a circuit is related to the
current in that circuit and in other circuits nearby.
 For a coil carrying current I, there is a magnetic field
produced around it. The value of B at each point is
proportional to the current. Therefore the magnetic flux
through the coil is also proportional to I:
NФ=LI, L=constant proportionality which is called
self-inductance.
Inductance(L) the property in an electrical circuit where a
change in the electric current through that circuit induces an
e.m.f. that opposes the change in current.
 If the current changes, then the magnetic flux through
the coil will also change, giving rise to an induced emf in
the coil.
 This induced emf will be such has to oppose the change in the
current.
 The induced EMF 𝜺, due to the self-inductance of the coil is (from
Faraday’s Law):

The SI-unit of self-inductance(L) is Henry(H)

= 1Ω·s

 The symbol of inductor is

#. Find the induced voltage in an inductor of 40 mH when the

current is changing at a rate of 0.5 A/s.
 The inductance of a solenoid
 

Consider a coil of N turns and length l in a circuit as

shown in the figure below.
 For a fixed area, A, and a changing current, I,
Faraday’s law becomes
, where 𝝫=BA
 For a long coil the e.m.f. is approximated
by

 We know also that

 If we equate the above two equations

 Mutual inductance
 occurs when a changing current in one circuit results, via changing
magnetic flux, in an induced emf and thus a current in an adjacent
circuit.
 Let 𝝫2be the magnetic flux in each loop of coil 2, created by the
current in coil 1. If coil 2 contains N2 turns, the N2𝝫2 is the total flux
in coil 2.
 The current in the secondary circuit is zero as long as the current in
the primary circuit, and therefore the magnetic field in the iron bar,
is not changing.
 Current flows in the secondary circuit
while the current in the primary is
changing. It flows in opposite
directions depending on whether the
magnetic field is increasing or
decreasing.
 The magnitude of the induced
current is proportional to the rate at
which the magnetic field is changing.
 The mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is a constant
and depends upon the geometry of the two coils
 The reverse situation can also take place when a change in current
in coil 2 induces an EMF into coil 1
 Definition M2 = N2𝝫2 ……..mutual inductance
 The induced emf in the secondary coil is

 This relates the change in current in coil 1 to the EMF induced in

coil 2.
 The mutual inductances M1,2 = M2,1 so that

#. Calculate the induced e.m.f. in a circuit linked to a second circuit

of inductance 3.0 × 10−3H when the rate of change of current in the
second circuit is 3 A/s.
9mV
 Electric generator
 It converts mechanical energy into electric energy.
 Rotating a coil in a magnetic field will create alternating current
 As coil rotates, amount of magnetic field enclosed by loop changes,
inducing a changing voltage
 Frequency of alternating current is the same as frequency of rotation
of the coil.
 An electric motor uses brushes and an armature to reverse the flow of
current so that the coil of wire can rotate 360o
 Motor: Current + Magnetic field = Torque
 Generator: Torque + Magnetic field = Current
 Transformer
 It is a pair of coils linked by mutual inductance.
 It is a device composed of two unconnected coils, usually
wrapped around a soft iron core, that can increase or
decrease the voltage of ac current.
 Two coils of wire wound on the same iron core so that
changes in the magnetic field of the first coil (primary)
induce voltage across the second coil (secondary)
 If ac flows through primary, ac is induced in secondary
 Voltage in secondary depends on ratio of turns in primary
and secondary
 If secondary has more turns, than transformer is called
step-up and voltage is increases
 If secondary has fewer turns, then is called step-down and
voltage is decreased
  (Faraday’s law) induced voltage in the primary coil
(Faraday’s law) induced voltage in the secondary coil.
Take the ratio of the above equations, and we get
  Ifthe transformer is an ideal, the input power is equal to the
out power.
Pin=Pout
IPVP=ISVS

#.The 110 V mains is applied to the primary of a transformer

consisting of 800 turns. The secondary has 200 turns. What is the
output voltage?
 𝑽 𝟏 𝑵𝟏
=  = 110/4 V
𝑽𝟐 𝑵 𝟐
#.a) What would the output voltage be if the secondary coil
had 200 turns and the primary coil had 1000 turns, and the
input voltage were 200 V?
b) If the input current is 10A, what would be the out put
current?