Higher Education in India:

Issues and Concerns

By
Poonam Bhushan
School of Education

IGNOU, Maidan Garhi

New Delhi-68

1
 Table : Number of Institutions
C: Higher Education Institutions
Type of Institutions Numbers
I. Universities
1. Central Universities 18
2. State Universities 275
3. Institutions established under States 5
Legislature Act
4. Institution deemed to be University 96
5. Institutions of National Importance 13
6. Research Institutes 136
Total 543 2
 Typology of Higher Education Institutions
(2004-2005)

Type Ownership Financing No. of No. of

Institutions students
Univ. under the Govt. Public Public 239 1,00,000
Private Universities Private Private 11 10,000

Deemed Universities Private or Public 38 40,000

(aided) Public
Deemed Universities Private Private 72 60,000
(unaided)
Colleges under the Public Public 4225 2,750,000
Government
Private Colleges (aided) Private Public 5750 3,450,000
2750000Private Colleges Private Private 7650 3,150,000
(unaided)
Foreign Institutions Private Private 150 8,000
3

Total 18123 10,468,000

 Table 5: Public Expenditures on Higher Education
Year Expenditure Expenditure on Expenditure on
on Edn. as % Higher Edn.as % of Higher Edn as
of GDP Expenditure on Edn % of GDP
1981-1990 3.59 15.6 0.34

1991-2000 3.77 19.3 0.72

2001-02 3.82 17.9 0.69

2002-03 3.80 18.5 0.70

2003-04 3.50 17.8 0.62

2004-05 (RE) 3.68 18.0 0.66

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Students Enrolment by Academic
Discipline (2002-2003)
S. Faculty Enrolment %age of
No. Total
1. Arts 41,58,606 45.07
2. Science 18,34,493 19.88
3. Commerce/Management 16,60,238 17.99
4. Education 1,32,572 1.43
5. Engineering/Technology 6,92,087 7.50
6. Medicine 3,00,669 3.25
7. Agriculture 55,367 0.60
8. Veterinary Science 14,765 0.16
9. Law 2,98,291 3.23
10. Others 80,745 0.88
5
Total 92,27,833 100.00
Table 1 : Enrolment Rate 2004-05
Rural, Urban – 2004-05

Total 10.84
Rural 6.74
Urban 19.88

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ER for Graduate and above 2004-05
(Rural & Urban)
19.88

20 10.84
6.74
10

0
Total Rural Urban
7
 Enrolment Rate –
Male, Female - 2004-05

Male 12.42
Female 9.11

8
 ER- Male, Female - 2004-05

12.42
15 9.11

10
5
0
Male Female
9
ER-Social Groups – 2004-05
Social Groups Total
ST 6.57
SC 6.52
OBC 8.77
Others 17.22
Total 10.84
10
 ER- Social Groups - 2004-05

20 17.22
10.84
15 8.77
6.57 6.52
10
5
0
ST SC OBC Others Total

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Table : GER by Income Level –
2004-05
Income Level Total
Less than 359.1 1.46
359.11 to 461.14 3.37
461.17 to 587.33 4.88
587.38 to 830.44 9.81
More than 830.5 27.43
Total 10.84 12
GER for Graduate and above by by Income
Level - 2004-05
27.43

30

20
9.81 10.84
4.88
3.37
10 1.47

0
> 359.1 359.11- 461.1 - 587.38 - < 830.5 Total
461.14 587.33 830.44

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 University Grants Commission (UGC)
The UGC Act, 1956, Ministry of HRD
www.ugc.ac.in
Statutory Coordination and determination of standards
Mandate in higher education and research in the
country
Primary Release of grants to universities and colleges
Function

Other Recognition of Universities and colleges

Functions (including eligibility for central grants)
specification of degrees; Minimum standards
of instruction, common pay scales, common
facilities and institutional accreditation through
NAAC 14
 Distance Education Council (DEC)
Sec. 25 of IGNOU Act, 1985, Ministry of HRD
www.ignou.ac.in/dec/

Statutory Promotion, coordination and

Mandate determination of standards of the
open universities and distance
education systems in the country.
Primary Release of grants to open
Function universities and correspondence
course institutes
Other Initiated assessment and
Functions accreditation activities
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 All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE) AICTE Act, 1987, Ministry of HRD,
www.aicte.ernet.in

Statutory Planning and coordinated

Mandate development of technical
education in the country
Primary Approval of degree and diploma
Function programs in engineering,
architecture, pharmacy and hotel
management
Other Funding for institutional and
Functions faculty development, pay scales
and qualifications of teachers 16

accreditation through NAAC

 Medical Council of India (MCI)
MCI Act, 1953, Ministry of Health,
www.mciindia.org

Statutory To establish standards in medical

Mandate education and to define medical
qualifications in India and abroad
Primary Registration of medical
Function practioners and recognition of
medical institutions
Other Eligibility criteria for admissions;
Functions exam. for recognition of foreign
qualifications for practice in India.
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 The Council of Architecture (COA)
The Architects Act, 1972,
Ministry of Urban Development, www.coa-india.org
Statutory Regulate profession and practice of
Mandate architects and town planners in India

Primary Registration of architects, maintaining

Function standards of education, recognized
qualifications and standards of practice

Other Maintaining the register of architects and

Functions make recommendations with regard to
recognition and de-recognition of a
qualification.

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 Indian Nursing Council (INC)
The INC Act, 1947,
Ministry of Health, www.mohfw.nic.in

Statutory Uniform standards of training

Mandate for Nurses
Primary Accepts qualifications
Function awarded by universities within
and outside India

Other Collection and compilation of

Functions data relating to nurses,
midwives, health visitors.
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 Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
RCI Act, 1992,
Ministry of Social Justice, www.rehacouncil.nic.in
Statutory Standardize and regulate the
Mandate training of personnel and
professions in the field of
rehabilitation and special
education.
Primary Recognition of institutions for
Function physiotherapy and related fields.
Other Registration of professionals,
Functions assessment and accreditations;
promotion of barrier free
environment. 20
 National Council For Teacher Education
(NCTE) NCTE Act, 1993,
www.ncte-in.org

Statutory Planned and Coordinated

Mandate development of the teacher
education in the country.
Primary Recognition of teacher education
Function institutions.
Other Lay down norms and standards
Functions

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Indian Council for Agricultural Research
(ICAR) Not a statutory body, Ministry of
Agriculture, www.icar.org.in

Statutory Coordinate agricultural research

Mandate and education
Primary Coordinate and fund agricultural
Function education and research in 30
state and 1 central and several
deemed universities for
agriculture.
Other Accredit agriculture universities,
Functions hold joint admission tests.
22
 Bar Council of India (BCI)
The Advocates Act, 1962, Ministry of Law
www.barcouncilofindia.nic.in

Statutory Lay down standards of professional

Mandate conduct and standards of legal
education.
Primary Lay down standards of professional
Function conduct and standards of legal
education.
Other Listing of members of bar; listing of
Functions foreign universities whose
qualifications are approved in India.
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 Quality and Quality Assessment
 In order to evaluate performance of an
institution and bring about a measure of
accountability a mechanism of accreditation has
been developed by UGC. This is an
autonomous council under UGC called National
Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC)
with a purpose to carry out periodic assessment
of universities and colleges. NAAC has evolved
a methodology of assessment which involves
self-appraisal by each university/college and an
assessment of the performance by an expert
committee.
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 Contd.
 Similarly, for technical education, AICTE
has established its own accreditation
mechanism for its institutions through
the National Board of Accreditation
(NBA).

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 NAAC
• NAAC has identified the following seven
criteria to serve as the basis of assessment
procedures:
 Curricular Aspects
 Teaching-learning and Evaluation
 Research, Consultancy and Extension
 Infrastructure and Learning Resources
 Student Support and Progression
 Governance and Leadership
 Innovative practice
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Higher Education : Some Concerns

• India has significant advantages in the 21st

century knowledge race:
 It has a large higher education sector — the
third largest in the world in student numbers,
after China and the United States.
 It uses English as a primary language of
higher education and research.
 It has a long academic tradition. Academic
freedom is respected.

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 Contd.
• There are a small number of high quality
institutions, departments, and centres that
can form the basis of quality sector in higher
education.
• The fact that the States, rather than the
Central Government, exercise major
responsibility for higher education creates a
rather cumbersome structure, but the system
allows for a variety of policies and
approaches.
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Large under-funded Institutions
• Large, under-funded, ungovernable
institutions
• Politics has intruded into campus life,
influencing academic appointments and
decisions across levels.
• Under-investment in libraries, information
technology, laboratories, and classrooms
difficult to provide top-quality instruction or
engage in cutting-edge research.

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 Faculty Concerns
• Freeze on new appointments
• Affects morale in the academic profession.
• Lack of accountability means that teaching
and research performance is seldom
measured.
• Few incentives to perform.
• Bureaucratic inertia hampers change.

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 Influence of English
• For an elite section, a stream of English
medium schools are run followed by an elite
set of colleges.
• Indian languages to be used as medium of
instructions have failed to undertake
translations on a large scale.
• Sciences, Technology and selective
institutions remain firmly anchored to English.
• Society remains divided between the upper
classes with takes advantage of English and
the lower classes or rural people who have to
do with regional language. 31
 Research and Creativity
• Weak research base
• A chain of laboratories outside the university
system has developed causing a diversion of
human and material resources to the system
of laboratories and institutes.

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Science and Technology
• Institutions like IITs are criticized because :
 Industry has not tended to profit from the
technological institutions;
 Their graduates often prefer foreign
employment since the developed countries
have a demand for their services and Indian
industry has not picked up high technology
areas of operation;
 The industry itself has relied much more on
foreign and imported technology than
indigenous efforts to correct its weaknesses.
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Content of education
• Two themes are important : Indigenousness
and Relevance.
• The tradition of subservience and inactivity in
the methods in institutional discipline as well
as in the learning processes are criticized.

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Methods of Teaching
• Large sized classes resulting from expansion,
inadequately backed by resources and an
external examination system which is easy to
negotiate with small amounts of
unimaginative work perpetuate in teaching
and learning.

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Public Policies and Practices
• The most recent initiative for making Higher
Education more inclusive:
• An Act of Parliament which came into force
in early January 2007.
Reserves an additional quota of 27% of
intake in institutions of higher education
maintained by the federal government to
marginalized social groups listed in the
Constitution as “Backward Castes”.

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Public Policies and Practices
• An Act of Parliament which came into
force in early January 2007.
• Decline in Public Budgets
• Non-recruitment of Teachers
• Cost Recovery
 Fees
 Loans

• Privatisation
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• Decline in Philanthropy
• Virtual halt of State-aided private sector
• Rapid growth in Self-financing private
sector, leading to diminution of public
sector
• Growth in self-financing courses in
public universities/colleges.

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