Pavement Distress

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 Pavement Performance ?
• The evaluation of pavement performance is an
important part of pavement design, rehabilitation
and management.
• It includes the evaluation of distress, roughness,
friction and structure.
• Traffic, materials and drainage can also be applied
to pavement evaluation.

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 Distress
• Distress is an important factor of pavement design.
Unfortunately, many of the distresses are caused by the
deficiencies in construction, materials and maintenance are
not related directly to design.
• Knowledge of the various types of distress is important to
pavement designer because it can help them to identify the
cause of the distress.
• If distress is due to improper design, improvements in the
design method can be made.
• Furthermore, the evaluation of pavement distress is an
important part of the pavement management system by which
a most effective strategy for maintenance and rehabilitation
can be developed
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 Distress
Asphalt Pavement
• A typical pattern of deterioration in asphalt
pavement is rutting, which develops somewhat
rapidly during the first few years and then levels off
to a much slower rate.
• Fatigue or alligator cracking does not normally
occur until after considerable loading and then
increases rapidly as the pavement weakens.

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 Distress
• In climates with either large variations in temperature or
very cold temperatures, asphalt pavements develop
transverse and longitudinal cracks. These cracks
usually break down and spall under traffic.
• The most common problem with composite pavements
is reflection cracking from joints and cracks in the
underlying concrete slab.
• Infiltration if water into the cracks, along with freezing,
thawing and repeated loadings, usually results in
breakup and spalling of the asphalt surface.
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 Distress
• Alligator or Fatigue Cracking
• Alligator or Fatigue Cracking is a series of
interconnecting cracks caused by the fatigue failure of
asphalt surface under repeated traffic loading.
• The cracks propagate to the surface initially as one or
more longitudinal parallel cracks. After repeated traffic
loading, the cracks connect and form many sided,
sharp-angled pieces that develop a pattern resembling
the skin of alligator.
• Alligator cracking is considered a major structural
distress.
• Alligator cracking is measured in square feet or square
meter of surface area
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Alligator Cracking

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 Distress
• Block Cracking
Block crack divide the asphalt surface into
approximately rectangular pieces. The blocks range in
size from approximately 1 to 100 ft2.
Block cracking is caused mainly by the shrinkage of hot
mix asphalt and daily temperature cycling. It is not load
associated, although loads can increase the severity of
the cracks.
The occurrence of block cracking usually indicates that
the asphalt has hardened significantly.
Block cracking is measured in square feet or square
meters of surface area.
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Joint Reflection Cracking from Concrete Slab
• This distress occurs only on pavements that have an asphalt
surface over a jointed concrete slab.
• Cracks occur at transverse joints as well as at the
longitudinal joints where the old concrete pavement has been
widened before overlay.
• Joint reflection cracking is caused mainly by the movement of
concrete slab beneath the asphalt surface because of thermal
or moisture changes and is generally not load initiated.
• However, traffic loading may cause a breakdown of the hot
mix asphalt near the initial crack, resulting in spalling.
• Knowledge of slab dimensions beneath the asphalt surface
will help to identify these cracks. Joint reflection cracking is
measured in linear feet or linear meters.
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• Longitudinal and transverse Cracking
• Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pavement centerline,
which transverse cracks extend across the centerline.
• They may be caused by the shrinkage of asphalt surface due
to low temperatures or asphalt hardening or result from
reflective cracks caused by cracks beneath the asphalt
surface, including cracks in concrete slabs but not at the
joints.
• Longitudinal cracks may also be caused by a poorly
constructed paving lane joint. These types of cracks are not
usually load associated.
• Longitudinal and transverse cracks are measured in linear
feet or linear meters.

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 Longitudinal
Cracking

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Transverse Cracking

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Pumping and Water Bleeding
• Pumping is the ejection of water and fine materials
under pressure through cracks under moving loads.
• As the water is ejected, it carries fine materials, thus
resulting in progressive material deterioration and loss
of support.
• Surface staining or accumulation of material on the
surface close to cracks is evidence of pumping.
• Water bleeding occurs where water seeps slowly out
of cracks on the pavement surface.
• Pumping and water bleeding are measured by counting
the number that exists.
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Rutting
• A rut is a surface depression in the wheel paths.
Pavement uplift may occur along the sides of the rut.
• However, in many instances ruts are noticeable only
after a rainfall, when the wheel paths are filled with
water.
• Rutting stems from any of the pavement layers or the
subgrade, usually caused by the consolidation or lateral
movement of the materials, due to traffic loads.
• Rutting may be caused by inadequate compaction
during construction.
• Rutting is measured in square feet or square meters of
surface area.
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Rutting

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 Swell
• Swell is characterized by an upward bulge on the
pavement surface.
• A swell may occur sharply over a small area or as a
long gradual wave.
• A swell is usually caused by frost action in the sub
grade or by swelling soils, but a swell can also occur on
the surface of an asphalt overlay on concrete pavement
as a result of blowup in the concrete slab.
• Swells are measured in square feet or square meters
of surface area.
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 Other types of distress
• The following types of distress may be caused by
deficiencies in construction, materials or maintenance;
• Bleeding: Bleeding is a film of bituminous material on
the pavement surface, which creates a shiny, glass-
like, reflecting surface that usually becomes sticky.
• It is caused by high asphalt content or low air void
content. Since the bleeding process is not reversible
during cold months, asphalt will accumulate on the
surface and lower the skid resistance.
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• Corrugations: Corrugation is a form of plastic
movement typified by ripples across the asphalt
surface. It occurs usually at bus stops where
vehicles accelerate or decelerate and is the result
of shear action between the pavement surface and
the base materials.

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• Depression:
• Depressions are localized pavement surface areas
having elevations slightly lower than those of the
surrounding pavement.
• They can be caused by the settlement of
foundation soil during construction

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• Patch deterioration; Deteriorations occur in a patch,
which is an area where the original pavement has
been removed and replaced with either similar or
different material.
• Traffic load, material, or poor construction practices
can all cause patch deterioration

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Patching

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• Polished aggregates: A portion of the aggregates
extending above the asphalt surface is either very
small or without rough or angular particles to
provide good skid resistance.
• This type of distress occurs mainly in the wheel
path due to repeated traffic loads.

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• Potholes: Potholes are bowl-shaped holes of
various sizes on the pavement surface.
• They are caused by the broken pavement surface
due to alligator cracking, localized disintegration or
freeze-thaw cycles.

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Pothole

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 Concrete Pavements
• It is helpful to separate various defects common to
concrete pavements. Some defects are localized while
others indicate that problems may develop throughout
the pavement.

• Surface defects
• Wear and polishing, map cracking, pop-outs, scaling,
shallow reinforcing, spalling.

• Joints
• Longitudinal joint, transverse joints
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 Cont…
• Pavement cracks
• Transverse slab cracks, D-cracking, corner cracks,

• Pavement deformation
• Blow ups; faulting; pavement settlement or heave;
utility repairs, patches and potholes; manhole and
inlet cracking.

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 Wear and polishing:
• A worn or polished surface may appear from traffic
wearing off the surface mortar and skid resistant
texture.
• Sometimes traffic may polish aggregates smooth,
causing the surface to be slippery.
• An asphalt overlay can restore skid resistance and
remove ruts.

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 Map cracking:
• A pattern of fine cracks usually spaced within
several inches is called map cracking.
• It usually develops into square or other geometrical
patterns. Can be caused by improper curing.

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 Pop-outs
• Individual pieces of large aggregate may pop out of
the surface.
• This is often caused by absorbent aggregates that
deteriorate under freeze-thaw conditions.
• Surface patching can be done temporarily with
asphalt.

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 Scaling
• Scaling is surface deterioration that causes loss of
fine aggregate and mortar.

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 Shallow reinforcing
• If the steel reinforcing bar or mesh is placed too close to the concrete
surface it will lead to concrete spalling. Corrosion of the steel creates
forces that break and dislodge the concrete. Often you can see rust
stains in the surface cracks before spalling occurs. Can be
temporarily patched with asphalt

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 Spalling:
• Spalling is the loss of a piece of the concrete pavement
from the surface or along the edges of cracks and
joints.
• Cracking or freeze-thaw action may break the concrete
loose, or spalling may be caused by poor quality
materials. Spalling may be limited to small pieces in
isolated areas or be quite deep and extensive. Repair
will depend on the cause. Small spalled areas are often
patched.
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Spalling

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 Longitudinal joints:
• Longitudinal paving joints are constructed to be
narrow in width and usually well sealed.
• As pavements age and materials deteriorate, joints
may open and further deteriorate.
• Settlement, instability, or pumping of the subgrade
soil can cause longitudinal joints to fault

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Longitudinal joint

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 Transverse joints
• Transverse joints are constructed in concrete pavements to
permit movement of the concrete slabs.
• Some joints are constructed with load transfer dowels. If the
pavement has poor subsurface drainage, traffic may
eventually create voids under the joints due to pumping and
cause the slabs to settle or fault. Freeze-thaw deterioration at
the joint can cause
• spalling and create additional cracks parallel to the joint. Load
transfer bars may corrode, creating expansive forces that
further deteriorate the concrete at the joint.

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Transverse joints

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 Transverse slab cracks:
• Transverse cracks may appear parallel to joints and can be caused
by thermal stresses, poor subgrade support, or heavy loadings. They
are sometimes related to slabs having joints spaced too widely.

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 D-cracks
• Occasionally, severe deterioration may develop
from poor quality aggregate.
• So called D-cracking develops when the aggregate
is able to absorb moisture.
• This causes the aggregate to break apart under
freeze-thaw action which leads to deterioration.
Usually, it starts at the bottom of the slab and
moves upward.
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D- cracks

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 Corner cracks:
• Diagonal cracks near the corner of a concrete slab
may develop, forming a triangle with a longitudinal
and transverse joint. Usually these cracks are within
one foot of the corner of the slab.
• They are caused by insufficient soil support or
concentrated stress due to temperature related slab
movement. The corner breaks under traffic loading.
They may begin as hairline cracks.

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Corner cracks

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 Blowups
• Concrete slabs may push up or be crushed at a
transverse joint. This is caused by expansion of the
concrete where incompressible materials (sand,
etc.) have infiltrated into poorly sealed joints.
• As a result, there is no space to accommodate
expansion

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Blowups

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 Faulting
• Joints and cracks may fault or develop a step
between adjacent slabs.
• Faulting is caused by pumping of subgrade soils
and creation of voids.
• Heavy truck or bus traffic can rapidly accelerate
faulting.
• Longitudinal joints may fault due to settlement of
an adjacent slab
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Faulting

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 Utility repairs, patches and potholes:
• Replacement or repair of utilities will require cuts or utility openings.
When repaired these pavement patches may show settlement, joint
deterioration, or distress under continued traffic loading.

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 Manhole and inlet cracks:
• Normal pavement movement due to frost heaving
and movements due to changes in temperature
often cannot be accommodated in the pavement
adjacent to a manhole or a storm sewer inlet.
• Cracks and faulting may develop and the concrete
slab may deteriorate further.

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Manhole and inlet cracks

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 Serviceability
• Serviceability is the ability of a specific section of
pavement to serve traffic in its existing condition.
• There are two ways to determine the serviceability.
• One method is to use the present serviceability
index (PSI), which is based on pavement
roughness as well as distress condition such as
rutting, cracking and patching.
• The other method is to use a roughness index
based on the roughness only.
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• Some definitions:
1. Present serviceability: The ability of a specific
section of pavement to serve high speed, high
volume, mixed traffic in its existing condition.
2. Individual present serviceability rating: An
independent rating by an individual of the present
serviceability of a specific section of roadway. The
ratings range from 0 to 5.
0 1 2 3 4 5

Very poor Poor Fair Good Very Good

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3. Present serviceability rating (PSR): The mean of
the individual rating made by the members of a
specific panel.
4. Present serviceability index (PSI):
A mathematical combination of values obtained
from certain physical measurement so formulated
as to predict the PSR for those pavements within
prescribed limits

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5. Performance index (PI): A summary of PSI over a
period of time, which can be represented by the
area under the PSI versus time curve.

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 Formulating PSI
• Many measurements summaries were tried in the
Road Test, but those finally selected were mean
slope variance for the longitudinal profile,
mean rut depth for the transverse profile and
cracking C and patching P for the surface
deterioration.

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• Mean slope variance:
• The symbol is used for the summary statistics of
wheel path roughness as measured by the Road
Test longitudinal profilometer.
• For each wheel path, the profilometer produces a
continuous record of the pavement slope between
two points 9 inch apart.

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Measurement of slope variance by
profilometer

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• A variance SV is computed for the sample slopes in
each wheel path by:

• S is the sample slopes,

• n is the number of samples, and is the mean of
all slopes. The SVs of the two wheel paths are
averaged to give the mean slope variance .
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• Mean rut depth:
• The transverse profile of the flexible pavement section
was measured by a rut depth gage.
• The gage is used to determine the difference elevation
between the wheelpath and a line connecting two
points each 2 ft away from the center of the wheelpath
in the transverse direction.
• Rut depth measurement were obtained at 20 ft.
intervals in both wheelpaths, which were averaged to
give the mean rut depth .
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Measurement of rut depth by a gage

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• Cracking and Patching;
• Cracking and patching were combined as a single
variable. Cracking is expressed as linear feet and
patching as square feet both per 1000 ft2 of
pavement area.

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 PSI
• The equation for flexible pavement

• OR

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 PSI
• The equation for rigid pavements, there is no rut
depth;

• OR

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 Roughness
• Roughness is the measurement of the unevenness
of the pavement in the direction of travel.
• It is measured in units of IRI (International
Roughness Index), inches per mile, and is
indicative of ride comfort.

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• The IRI summarizes the longitudinal surface profile in
the wheelpath and is computed from surface elevation
data collected by either a topographic survey or a
mechanical profilometer.
• It is defined by the average rectified slope (ARS),
which is a ratio of the accumulated suspension motion
to the distance traveled obtained from a mathematical
model of a standard quarter car transversing a
measured profile at a speed of 50mph (80km/h)

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Rating category IRI value range
Excellent <= 127
Good 128 - 154
Fair 155 - 240
Poor >240

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