1 Learning Objective

Students should be able to :

 Determine and explain factors that participate in the maintenance of body
temperature
 Explain the mechanism of heat transfer between the body and its environment
Describe poikilotherm and homoiotherm organisms
 Explain normal body temperature and its measurement, and the relation of the
metabolic level to the body temperature that maintain the stable temperature
 Explain the relation of core temperature and counter current mechanism in
maintaining the body temperature
 Describe the the set point of the body temperature by thermostat of the body and
thermoregulation center
 Explain physiological reflexes related to the regulation of body temperature
 Explain the effects of environment factors (temperature, humidity, air movement,
etc.) on body temperature and the cooling power of of the environment
Body Temperature Regulation

Lecturer: dr HERMAN MULIJADI,MS,SpKP

 Determine and explain factors that participate in the maintenance of body temperature
3

The maintenance of body temperature

Balance between heat production and heat loss.

Heat production VS Heat Loss

Factors determine the metabolic Factors determine heat loss:

rate of body - heat conduction by the subcutaneous tissue
- basal metabolic rate of all cell
- muscle activity/shivering
- hormones activity (thyroxine,)
- sympathetic activity
- activity of the cells themselves
- specific dynamic action of the
food (thermogenic effect)
- heat conduction of the skin
- blood flow from the core body to the skin
- sympathetic factor
(vasoconstriction/vasodilatation)
- basic physics of heat transfer
- radiation - convection
- conduction - evaporation
- sweating & autonomic regulation
- set point
4The mechanism of heat transfer between the body and its environment
 5
The mechanism of heat transfer between the body and its environment
Heat loss at rest in ambient environmental conditions:
-60% via radiation
-12% via convective air currents
-3% via conduction (e.g. feet to floor)
-25% via evaporation (lungs and skin)
During exercise:
-Up to 80% via evaporation of sweat from the skin (dependent on humidity
6
The poikilotherm and homiotherm organisms

Endothermy and Ectothermy

An Endotherms is an animal that regulates its own body temperature,

typically by keeping it at a constant level ,endotherm create most of their
heat via metabolic processes, and are colloquially referred to as warm-
blooded
Ectotherms use external sources of temperature to regulate their body
temperatures. They are colloquially referred to as cold-blooded despite the fact
that body temperatures often stay within the same temperature ranges as
warm-blooded animals.

Organisms
exchange
heat by four
physical
processes:
 The poikilotherm and homiotherm organisms
7

Homeothermy versus Poikilothermy

Homeothermy and poikilothermy refer to how stable an organism's temperature is.

• The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment, Almost

all other animals display a variation of body temperature, dependent on their
surroundings (poikilothermy).
• The body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant. Most
endothermic organisms are homeothermic, like mammals.
• The relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed (that
is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)

• Humans are homeothermic (i.e. body temperature is maintained

independent of environmental temperature)
•The ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-
changing outside world (returning to a particular stable state after a
fluctuation.) is called Homeostasis
•The ability to maintain the temp. of the body is regulated almost entirely by
temp. regulating centers located in the hypothalamus.
 The normal body temperature and its measurement, and the relation
8 of the metabolic level to the body temperature that maintain the stable

temperature

Measurement of Body Temperature

 The ability to sense and regulate body temperature is a key
feature of human survival.
 A deviation of ± 3.5°C from the resting temperature of 37°C can
result in physiological impairments and fatality.

Advances in the related field of body temperature measurement

have played an important role in human thermoregulation research

allowing phycisian to quantify and “see” body temperature

 Normal body temperature and its measurement, and the relation of the metabolic level to the body temperature
that maintain the stable temperature
9

Measurement of Body Temperature

In humans, body temperature comprises the temperatures :
 The core
 The shell.
 The core temperature (Tc) refers to the temperatures of the
abdominal, thoracic and cranial cavities,
 Tc is endothermic regulated by the brain, at about 36.8°C during rest,
 Tc is essentially the temperature of the blood in the circulation, and
 the gold standard for Tc is taken to be the temperature of the blood from
the pulmonary artery. , but measurement of intra-pulmonary arterial (IPA)
temperature is invasive, and is not suitable for non-surgical applications.

 The shell temperature (Ts) refers to the temperatures of the skin,

subcutaneous tissue and muscles.
 Ts is ectothermic influenced more by skin blood flow
and environmental conditions
10 Measurement of Body Temperature

Oral temperature is one of the common sites for measuring Tc in the clinical
setting. Oral temperature fluctuates about 0.4°C below IPA temperature.

Oesophagus temperature is measured by inserting a thermistor probe

through the oral or nasal passages into the oesophagus.

Tympanic temperature is measured at the tympanic membrane. Among the

non-invasive sites for Tc measurement, tympanic temperature probably has
the strongest association with Tc.

The axilla temperature is measured under the armpit, near to the brachial artery.
Axilla temperature measurement is practical, non-invasive and safe, and is
suitable for infants and younger children

GI temperature is measured by ingesting a telemetric temperature sensor

that transmits the temperature of the GI environment wirelessly to an
external logger
11 Measurement of Body Temperature

 Rectal temperature
 is measured by inserting a thermistor rectal probe or a thermometer about
8 cm past the external anal sphincter.
 This is one of the most common methods for measuring Tc in the
laboratory.
 Rectal temperature reading is stable and is not influenced by ambient
conditions.

 Hyperthermia can impair the central nervous system and cause

systemic inflammation, tissue necrosis and multiple organ failures.
 Extremes in Tc (>42°C) can be detrimental to cellular and organ
functions, which can threaten survival of the host.

 Hypothermia (Tc <35°C) impairs cardiovascular, respiratory and central

nervous system functions, which can lead to muscle damage, pulmonary
oedema, hypotension, bradycardia, and renal failure.
12 The effects of environment factors
(temperature, humidity, air movement, , etc.)
 The relation of the metabolic level to the body temperature
13 that maintain the stable temperature
Basal Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a
“comfortable” temperature
• Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a
specific temperature
• Both rates assume a non growing, fasting, and non stressed animal
• Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable
size
• Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an
endotherm or ectotherm
 The relation of the metabolic level to the body temperature
14 that maintain the stable temperature
Daily Variation
Circadian Variation Endocrine status can alter circadian variation:
-Range of 1°C over 24 hours -e.g. Estrogen and progesterone release on day 14
-Lowest 4-6 am of the menstrual cycle cause internal temperature
-Highest 6-8 pm to be 0.5-0.75°C higher at baseline.
15
16
17
 19 The relation of core temperature and counter current mechanism in
maintaining the body temperature

Human Countercurrent mechanism

Human when cutaneous blood vessel are
cooled  sensitive to catecholamin  arteriole
& venule constrict  direct blood away from
skin and into venae concomitantes

deep vein run along side arteries 

Heat is transferred from the arterial to the
venous blood and carried back into body
without reaching the skin Countercurrent heat exchangers
transfer heat between fluids flowing
in opposite directions and reduce
Countercurrent exchange heat loss
20 The relation of core temperature and counter current
mechanism in maintaining the body temperature

• In cold environments, mammals reduce

heat loss by having a thick insulating
layer of fat, fur, or both.
• Heat production is increased.
• Extremities are allowed to cool.
– Heat loss is prevented through
countercurrent heat exchange
between fluids flowing in opposite
directions and reduce heat loss
 The the set point of the body temperature by thermostat of the body
21 and thermoregulation center
Temperature regulating centres :
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body
temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding
temperature is very different.
• The temp. of the body is regulated almost entirely by temp.
regulating centers located in the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus acts as “thermostat” that makes
thermoregulatory adjustments to deviations from temperature
norm in the brain (37 ± 1° C or 98.6±1.8 ° F ).

• The temp. regulating mechanisms include:

 autonomic,
 Somatic
 endocrine &
 behavioral changes.
 Temperature regulating centres Con’t:
22
Set Point
• When the body core temp. either increase above or decreases below
almost exactly 37o C, several thermoregulatory responses take place to
bring it back to this temp. Therefore, this critical temp. level is called
the”set-point” of the temp. control system.
• When the body temp. increases above the critical temp,(the set-point in the
hypothalamus),one group of these change take place to increase heat loss
& decreases heat production.
• On the other hand, when the body temp. decreases below the set point.
Another group of change takes place to decrease heat loss & increase heat
production
 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature
Control center
The brain detects the
deviation from the set
point and signals effector
organs.

Receptors Effectors
Thermoreceptors send Skin blood vessels dilate
signals to the control center. and sweat glands secrete.

Stimulus Response
Body temperature Body heat is lost to surroundings,
rises above normal. temperature drops toward normal.

too high

Normal body
Temperature
37oC (98.6oF)
too low

Stimulus Response
Body temperature Body heat is conserved,
drops below normal. temperature rises toward normal.

Receptors Effectors Effectors

Thermoreceptors send Skin blood vessels constrict and generates body heat.
signals to the control center. sweat glands remain inactive.

Control center
The brain detects the
deviation from the set point
If body temperature
and signals effector organs.
continues to drop, control
center signals muscles to
contract involuntarily.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
24
Temperature regulating centres Con’t:
The temp. of the body is regulated almost entirely by temp. regulating centers
located in the hypothalamus
1.The anterior hypothalamus-preoptic area :
The preoptic & anterior hypothalamic nuclei contain two types of neurons :
A)Heat – Sensitive neurons(receptors) which are present in large numbers.
They increase their rate of firing as the temp. rises.
B)Cold – sensitive neurons (receptors) which are less in number than the
heat sensitive neurons.Their firing rate increase when the body temp. falls.
Both of these types of cells function as temp. sensor for controlling body temp.
•2. The posterior hypothalamus : The posterior hypothalamus contains a
special area located bilaterally,approximately at the leval of the mammary
bodies. This area receives signals from the anterior hypothalamus -preoptic
area and from peripheral receptors where they are combined to provide
mainly the heat producing and heat conserving reactions.
(it is the regulating Centre., it is the thermostat.)
25 Hypothalamus Regulation of Temperature
Mechanisms are activated in two ways:
Direct stimulation of hypothalamus through changes in blood temperature
perfusing area
Indirect Thermal receptors in skin provide input to central command
Deep body tissue: Mainly in the spinal cord, in the abdominal viscera, and
around the great veins

Cold and warm Deep body tissue:

receptors These receptors detect
•Warm’ (Ruffini) respond body core temp. rather
to 28 - 45°C than the body surface
•Cold (Krause) sensors temperature. Yet . Like
are also closer to the skin the skin receptors they
surface. respond to 10 - detect cold. Therefore,
38°C both the skin and deep
•‘10 x more cold sensors body receptors are
than warm sensors concerned with
preventing low body
temperatures
The physiological reflexes related to the regulation of body temperature
26

The regulation of
Reflex
body temperature
 Describe the the set point of the body temperature by thermostat
27 of the body and thermoregulation center
Thermoregulation
Behavior

Homeostatic
Deep body tissue:
Control
Mechanisms
Warm’
(Ruffini)

Receptor
Cold
(Krause) Posterior
Set point Somatic Control
centre
Autonomic N

Effector

Hormonal
28 The effects of environment factors (temperature, humidity, air movement, etc.) on
body temperature and the cooling power of of the environment

The maintenance of body temperature

Balance between
Heat production and Heat loss.

Heat Heat
Production Loss

Surface
 BMR Conduction Temperature

Air Current
Convection Blood flow

Exercise / Rest Muscular activity  Evaporation

( Sweating / Humidity
Thyroxin Hormones acclimatization)
Ambient
protein Dietary- Induced Radiation Temperature
thermogenesis

Ambient Environment
Temperature
 29 Evaluating Heat Stress

• Prevention remains most

effective way to manage
heat-stress injuries
• Wet bulb-globe
temperature relies on
 ambient temperature,
 relative humidity, and
 radiant heat.
• Heat stress index

Heat transfer
Conduction
Convection vs Air current
Evaporation vs Humidity
Radiation
 Exercise in the Cold
30

• Evaluating Environmental
Cold Stress
– Wind chill index
• Respiratory tract in Cold
– Cold air does not
damage respiratory
passages.
– Air warms to between
80° F to 90° F as it
reaches bronchi.
– Humidification of
inspired cold air
produces water & heat
loss from respiratory
tract.
 31 Hyperthermia :
It means an elevation of body temp. higher than the thermoregulatory set
point, usually due to an exogenous cause.
It may be caused by :
1)Increased heat production e.g. by severe muscular exercise or high
environmental temp., which exceeds the normal capacity of heat loss
mechanism.
2)Impaired heat loss e.g. due to high humidity or drugs that impair sweating
such as anticholinergics. Hyperthermia Heat
Production
Heat Loss
Increase
decrease

Temp. decreasing mechanisms activated by High Surface

Temperature Conduction BMR >>
heat :
Air Current << Convection Muscular
1. Increase heat loss : cutaneous dilatation Blood flow<< activity
Exercise
(80%)
2. Sweating : High
Evaporation
Hormones Thyroxin>>
3. Behavioral responses : humidity
( Sweating /
Dietary-
acclimatization) High
Induced
protein
High thermogenesis
Ambient Radiation High Ambient
Temperature Environment Temperature
 32

I Temp. decreasing mechanisms activated by heat :

A)Increase heat loss :
1)Cutaneous vaso dilatation :
 This occurs in almost all areas of the body.It is caused by inhibition of the
sympathetic centers in the posterior hypothalamus that causes vasoconstriction.
 Cutaneous vasodilatation increase the rate of heat tranfer to the skin.

• Circulation. Superficial venous and

arterial blood vessels dilate to divert
warm blood to the body shell.
Temp. decreasing mechanisms activated by heat : 33
A)Increase heat loss (Cont’):
2. Sweating :
 When the anterior hypothalamus-preoptic area is stimulated by heat,  impulses
are transmitted pathways to the spinal cord and  then through the sympathetic
cholinergic fibers to  the sweat glands to  increase their secretion. This is turn
increases the evaporative heat loss.
 Sweat gland can also be stimulated by epinephrine or nor epinephrine circulating in
the blood. This is important during exercise.
•Evaporation. Sweating begins within 1.5 s after start of
vigorous exercise.
•Hormonal adjustments. Certain hormonal adjustments
are initiated in heat stress as body attempts to conserve
fluids and sodium.
The sweating rate depend on:
(1 ) The intensity of the activity
(2) The environment conditions
(3) The physical fitness
(4) How accustom working in the heat
(Acclimatization)
(5) The type and amount of clothing
worn
 34 Acclimatization of the sweating mechanism :
When a normal person is exposed to hot weather for 1 to 6 weeks two changes
take place which are called acclimatization of the sweating mechanism.
These are :
Sweat production increases to as much 2 liters/hour.
Decreased concentration of sodium chloride in the sweat caused by increased
secretion of aldosterone. (Aldosterone is released to increase the re-absorption
of sodium)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released to increase water re-absorption from
kidneys.
Charactistics of sweat :
1.Sweat is hypotonic to the blood.
2.Sweating caused the cell becomes hypertonic to the interior of cell
3.Water from the interior of the cell will flow out of the cell to maintaining osmotic
equilibrium
4.If not replacing water, blood volume diminishes
5.If water loss excessive sweating is diminished or stop to maintain blood volume. The
internal body temperature soars.
6.A high concentration of electrolytes in blood will interfere the
normal rhythm of the heart precipitating ventricular fibrillation
,hearth failure and death.
35

3. Behavioral responses :
A) Find the shelter
B) Decrease heat production :
Strong inhibition of mechanisms which cause excess heat
production.
Anorexia.
Apathy and inertia
 36
Hypothermia :
It means an elevation of body temp. lower than the thermoregulatory set
point, usually due to an exogenous cause.
It may be caused by : Low environment temperature and wind chill

Temp. increasing mechanisms activated by cold : Hypothermia

A. Decrease heat loss : Heat Loss Heat
1. Cutaneous vasoconstriction Increase Production
Decrease
2. Pilo erection
3. Behavioral responses.(to put on LowSurface
Temperature Conduction BMR <<
suitable clothes.) ( Fur – Wool)
Air Current >> Convection Muscular
Rest
Blood flow >> activity
B. Increase heat production:
Evaporation
1. Thermogenesis is increased by muscle Low
humidity
Hormones Thyroxin <<

activity such as moving or shivering ( Sweating /

acclimatization)
Dietary-
Low
Induced
2.Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place Low Ambient thermogenesis
protein
Radiation
when hormones cause mitochondria to Temperature
Environment
Low Ambient
Temperature
increase their metabolic activity
(ephineprin/norephineprin and thyroxin)
37

II. Temp. increasing mechanisms activated by cold

A) Decrease heat loss :
1. Cutaneous vasoconstriction : Caused by stimulated of the posterior
hypothalamus sympathetic centers. This decreases the rate of heat transfer to
the skin.
2. Pilo erection :Which is caused by sympathetic stimulation of the erector pili
muscles.This mechanism is not important in the human being and is manifested
by “goose skin”, but in lower animals upright projection of the hairs allows them
to entrap a thick layer of “ insulator air” next to the skin.
3.) Behavioral responses.(to put on suitable clothes.) ( Fur – Wool)
 38

B) Increase heat production:

• Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic heat production to
maintain body temperature
– Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity such as moving
or shivering
– Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when hormones cause
mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity
– Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase body temperature
B) Increase heat production: 39
1) a. Shivering :
- It is an involuntary response of the skeletal muscles which is controlled by an area in
the posterior hypothalamus called the primary motor center for shivering - - This area is
normally inhibited by signals from the heat center in the anterior hypothalamus but is
excited by cold signals from the skin and spinal cord
- .Therefore, this center becomes activated when the body temp. falls even slightly
below 370C. It then transmits signals down the brain stem and spinal cord to the anterior
motor neurons to increase the tone of the skeletal muscles throughout the body.
- When the tone rises above a certain critical level, shivering begins.During Maximum
shivering,body heat production can rise to as high as five times normal.
1b.. Semiconscious general increase in motor activity.
People also use their muscles for voluntary heat-producing activities such as foot
stamping and hand clapping.
B) Increase heat production Cont, 40
2. Nonshivering thermogenesis.
a. Increased secretion of nor epinephrine and epinephrine.
- This can cause an immediate increase in the rate of cellular metabolism.
- This effect is called “chemical thermo genesis” and it results mainly from uncouple
oxidative phosphorylation. This process occurs in brown fat.
- Adults do not have a significant amount of this type of fat, therefore chemical
thermo genesis increases the rate of heat production only 10%.
- On the other hand, infants have some brown fat in the interscapular space &
chemical thermo genesis can increase the rate of heat production as much as 100%
which is very important factor in maintaining their normal body temp

The thermostatic function of

the hypothalamus in human
thermoregulation
B) Increase heat production Cont, 41
b. Increased thyroxin secretion
- Exposure to prolonged cold increase the production of thyrotropin-releasing hormone
by the hypothalamus
-- which stimulates the secretion of the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the
anterior pituitary gland.
- TSH in turn stimulates increased output of thyroid gland.Thyroxin
- Thyroxin increase the rate of cellular metabolism throughout the body .it is
another mechanism of chemical thermo genesis .
- However, this increase in metabolism requires several weeks for the thyroid gland to
hypertrophy before it reaches its new level of thyroxin secretion. Moreover, it is of little
significance in adult humans.
 Summary of Effector Mechanisms in
42
Temperature Regulation
43
The method to measure the humidity
44
Wet Bulb Globe Temperature

The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) is a composite temperature

used to estimate the effect of temperature, humidity, and solar radiation on
humans. It is used by industrial hygienists, athletes, and the military to
determine appropriate exposure levels to high temperatures. It is derived
from the following formula:
WBGT = 0.7Tw + 0.2Tg + 0.1Td
Where
Tw= Natural wet-bulb temperature (humidity indicator)
Tg=Globe thermometer temperature (measured with a globe
thermometer, also known as a black globe thermometer, to measure
solar radiation)
Td=Dry-bulb temperature (normal air temperature)
Temperatures may be in either Celsius or Fahrenheit
Indoors, or when solar radiation is negligible, the following formula is used:
WBGT = 0.7Tw + 0.3Tg
45
WBGT = 0.7Tw + 0.2Tg + 0.1Td

WBGT Index (F) Flag Color Intensity of Physical Exercise

NAVMED P-5010 CH 9

Less than 80 White Extremely intense physical exertion may precipitate heat
exhaustion or heat stroke, therefore, caution must be
taken

80-84.9 Green Discretion is required in planning heavy exercise for

unacclimatized personnel. This is a marginal heat stress
limit forall personnel.

85-87.9 Yellow(Amber) Strenuous exercise and activity must be curtailed for new
and unacclimatized personnel during the first 3 weeks of
heat exposure. Outdoor classes in the sun must be avoided
when the WBGT index exceeds 85.

88-89.9 Red Strenuous exercise must be curtailed for all personnel with
less than 12 weeks training in hot weather.

90 or Above Black Physical training and strenuous exercise must be

suspended for all personnel. (excludes operational
commitment not for training purposes).
WB is the wet-bulb temperature /Tw
BG is the 6-inch Vernon Black Globe temperature /Tg
DB is the dry-bulb (ambient) temperature Td
WBGT is the wet-bulb globe temperature index
46
Thanks for your attention

Any Question?
 Reference
Lauralee Sherwood: Human Physiology;. Department of Physiology and
Pharmacology School of Medicine West Virginia University. rooks/Cole
10 Davis Drive Belm
Arthur C. Guyton, M.D., John E. Hall, Ph.D:Text Book of Medical Physiology;.
Department of Physiology and Biophysics University of Mississippi Medical
Center Jackson, Mississippi, 11th ed. Philadelphia, Saunders.
Vander et al's : Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function,
9th ed , the McGraw-Hill Publishing
W.F.: Ganong MD: Review of Medical Physiology, 12th ed , Lange
Medical Publications
Mc Naught C. Illustrated Physiology 5th Ed Churchill Livingstone,1990
FMS3,W1:Homeostasis-Thermoregulation, Dr. med.dr AgusW.Budi
Santoso. AIF.PFK, UPH-Medical School. 2010
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