Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Fluid Flow in Porous Media
Objectives:
•Understand forces responsible for driving fluid

through reservoir
•Be aware of models available to represent reservoir

and wells
•Assess flow properties of reservoir
•Introduce concepts used in welltesting

Summary
Fluid flow depends on:
• reservoir geometry
• reservoir fluids
• reservoir properties
Two methods to represent fluid flow:
• analytical solutions to diffusivity equation

• approximation methods to diffusivity equation
finite difference/ finite element
simulations
Summary
Solutions to be examined:
Introduction
•Objective to understand mechanism of fluid migration
in order to understand and improve recovery from the
reservoir.
•Similar in concept to flow in pipes
•General energy equation not applicable because of

geometry, interconnections etc.
•Dimensions give rise to scaling problem – capillary

forces become relatively important (over viscous
forces)
Introduction
•Surface chemistry effects between minerals and fluids
•Main effect is time taken for fluid to move from high

to low pressure regions
•If similar to large body of water, then pressure same

at every point at all times
•If rapid equilibration, then Darcys Law would be

applicable
Introduction
•Illustrated with model:
–10 tubes representing section of reservoir from

wellbore into reservoir
–Initially no flow and all tubes at same height
–Flow initiated and fluid expands
–Pressure profile develops as fluid expansion migrates

along model
Introduction
•Illustrated with model:
–Unusual situation where although hydraulically

connected, pressure varies along tubes
–Time taken for pressure wave to move along tubes
–Restrictions at base of tubes limits flow and mimics

flow through pore structure
Initial steady state, no flow
Flow initiated at constant rate
Pressure profile develops
Pressure disturbance reaches outer boundary
Sealed therefore the pressure in system drops
Well shut in and pressure builds in well
Steady state, no flow
Initial pressure profile is transient – note back end of
model still at initial pressure condition even though
pressure has fallen in tubes nearest fluid exit
Pressure profile develops through model until the back

tube is hit, then the entire system depressurises.
Transition to semi-steady state.
If fluid entered the system at the back end of the

model at the same rate as it outflowed, there would be
a second steady state flow regime, i.e. the pressure in
the back end tube would not change.
In this case the pressure in the model declines once

the fluid at the back end has started to flow since
there is no inflow, this is a special case of transient
flow called semi steady state. The gradient remains
constant; the absolute pressure falls.
The model can be seen to continue to flow after the
well has been shut in. The fluid in the reservoir is still
trying to reach equilibrium.
A major feature of this system is the appreciable time

taken to change from one steady state to a second
steady (or semi-steady) state.
This time dependence may be significant in real

reservoirs, where the areal extent of the reservoir is
such that it may take decades to equilibrate, or indeed
there may never be equilibration.
Characterisation and Modelling of Flow
Patterns
Complex patterns:
shapes of oil bearing formations irregular
heterogeneous formation properties:
porosity, permeability, saturation
(saturation of hydrocarbons may vary
throughout the formation leading to
variations in rel perm)
deviated wellbores through reservoir
varying production rates from different wells –
in general high rate wells drain larger areas
many wells do not fully penetrate the reservoir
Essentially two possibilities to cope with complexities:
• drainage area of well subdivided into small

blocks which represent the variations in
properties
series of complex equations describing fluid
flow solved by numerical or semi-numerical
methods
• single block which preserves global features

and heterogenities – fluid properties averaged
or substituted by simple relationship or pattern
of features (like fracture pattern)- which allows
analytical solution
Idealised Flow Patterns
Linear, radial, spherical, hemispherical
Linear and radial of most use
Assume oil system with cp<<1, i.e. small and constant

compressibility
If gas reservoir, compressibility must be accounted for

(by gas pseudo-functions for example)
General Case
Flow velocity, U
Resolved into x, y, z directions
The components of the flow velocity vector, U are:

Ux = -(kx/)(P/x)
Uy = -(ky/)(P/y)
Uz = -(kz/)(P/z+g)
k = permeability (m2) in the direction of X, Y, Z. The Z direction has an

elevation term, g, included to account for the change in head.
P = pressure (Pa)
 = viscosity (Pas)
 = density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
U = flow velocity (m/s) = (m3/s/m2)
Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase Fluid
flowrate, q
out
dx
area, A
x=L
x+dx
porosity,  X axis
x
flowrate, q
in x=0
isometric view
dx
flowrate, q flowrate, q
in out
x=0 x x+dx x=L
X axis
plan view
Flow along x direction, no flow in y or z directions
Flow into cuboid at left, out of cuboid at right
Total length, L
Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
Flow equations:
 k  P 
U x    
   x 
 U    
    0≤x≤L
x  t 
k = permeability (in the X direction), (mD)
= density, (kg/m3)
U = flow velocity (m/s)
t = time (s)
= porosity
= viscosity, Pas
P = pressure, Pa
x = distance, (m)
Fluid flows in at position x=0, out at x=L.
Element from x to position x+dx is examined.
The bulk volume of the element is the product of the

area, A and the length, dx, i.e. bulk volume = A*dx.
The pore volume of element is product of the bulk

volume and the porosity, , i.e. pore volume =
A*dx*
If flow steady state then the flowrates into and out of

the volume (qin and qout) would be identical and Darcy’s
Law would apply.
If the flow rates vary from the inlet of the volume to
the outlet, i.e. qin ≠ qout then either:
fluid is accumulating in the element and qin > qout
or:
fluid is depleting from the element qout > qin
(which is possible in a pressurised system since the

pressure of the fluid in the element may reduce
causing it to expand and produce a higher flow rate
out of the element)
Therefore, there is a relationship between the change in mass, m, along
the cuboid and the change in density, , over time as the mass
accumulates or depletes from any element. In terms of mass flowrate,
Mass flow rate through the area, A = q

((m3/s)*(kg/m3) = kg/s)
Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x = (q)x
Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x+dx = (q)x+dx
Mass flowrate into a volume element at x minus
mass flowrate out of element at x + dx =(q)x- (q)x+ dx
The mass flow rate out of the element is also equal to the rate of change of mass
flow in the element, i.e.
 q 
q x dx  q x  * dx
x
 q 
Change in mass flow rate =  * dx
x
(if change is +ve, element accumulating mass, if –ve depleting mass)
This must equal rate of change of mass in element with volume A*dx*
Rate of change of mass equal to   A  dx

t
 q  
hence  =A 
x t
flow velocity, U = q/A, therefore
 U 
 
x t
or
 U 

x t
Substitution of parameters gives
 k P 

x  x t
Equation shows areal change in pressure linked to
temporal change in density. Measure pressure easier
than density, therefore use isothermal compressibility
to convert to pressure
1 V
c= - ( )
V P
T
m
The density equals mass per unit volume (   ),hence:
V
  (m/  ) 1 
c= - = ; (Quotient Rule, constant mass system)
m P  P
Since
   P P
= =c   (from above)
t P t t
then
 k P P
 
= c 
x   x  t
 k P P
 
= c 
x   x  t
Partial differential equation for linear flow of any single

phase fluid in porous medium – relates spatial and
temporal variations in pressure
•In core relates pressure distribution along core during

flooding, during all time, i.e. from start of flood to
staedy state conditions
•In linear reservoir where aquifer flows into reservoir

as production proceeds
But, non-linear because of pressure dependence of

density, compressibility and viscosity.
Simple linearisation follows
Linearisation of Fluid Flow Equation
Assume permeability and viscosity are independent of
location
 P P
( ) = (c/k)
x x t
The left hand side can be expanded to:
  P
+  P/  x 2)
x x
Using equation 2.4 and since

  P
x = P x
the above becomes

c(P/x)2 + (2P/x2).
c(P/x)2 is neglected compared to 2P/x2 since pressure gradient small, substituting gives
2P  c P
=( )
x 2 k t
assumption that compressibility small and constant
coefficients c/k are constant and equation linearised
(k/c) termed diffusivity constant
assume cp<<1 for oil systems
saturation weighted compressibility
c=coSo+cwSwc+cf
c= saturation weighted compressibility
co = compressibility of oil
cw= compressibility of connate water
cf =compressibility of formation
So= oil saturation
Swc= connate water saturation
Conditions of Solution
Initial conditions
at time t=o, intial pressure Pi specified for every value
of x
•Boundary conditions
•at end faces x-0, x=L flow rate or pressure specified
for every value of x
•solutions of linear diffusivity equation for linear flow
from aquifers
Radial Model
Radial model for cylindrical

reservoir , constant thickness,
h
Distance, r from x-axis, flow velocity, U now radius dependent:
U = q/2rh
From Darcys Law,
k P
U =  r
The mass balance gives:
(q) 
= 2rh 
r t
Eliminating U and q through equations gives the non linear equation:

1 k P P
r = c 
r r  r t
Making assumptions as for linear flow, linearises the equation to:

1  P c P
(r ) =
r r r k t
Range of Application
applied to water influx and wellbore production
•water encroachment - inner boundary corresponds to

mean radius of reservoir, outer boundary mean radius
of aquifer
•wellbore pressure regime - inner boundary is wellbore
radius, rw, outer boundary is the boundary of the
drainage area.
•values of rw
open hole drilled close to gauge: 1/2 bit diameter
well cased cemented, perforated: 1/2 bit diameter
slotted liner with gravel pack: 1/2 OD of liner
out of gauge hole: average radius from caliper log
Condition of Solution
Initial: t=o, Pi specified at all locations
Outer boundary:
a) no flow: p/r = 0, flow velocity =o
b) flow: p/r not equal to zero,
pressure maintained at boundary
Inner boundary:
constant terminal rate
production rate constant at well
aquifer influx constant
constant terminal pressure
BHP constant
aquifer pressure constant, influx varies
Characterisation of flow regimes based on
time
transient
semi-steady state
steady state
Steady State: pressure and rate distribution in

reservoir constant with time
Unsteady State (transient): pressure and/or rate vary
with time
Semi-Steady State: special case of unsteady state
which resembles steady state
Working solutions need to refer to the appropriate flow
regime
CTR for radial models
flow rate constant
oil flowing to fully perforated well
aquifer encroachment
radial flow of single phase fluid from outer radius b to

inner radius a
assuming right hollow cylinder of homogeneous

medium
for a well, a is rw, b is re (external boundary radius)

flow rate, q is constant at wellbore
for aquifer, a is mean reservoir radius, b mean aquifer
radius, q volume flow rate of water across initial WOC
The radial constant terminal rate case is determined by the
following system of equations:
1  P  c  P ; a≤ r ≤ b
(r
r r r ) = k t (3.1)
 2rkh  p 
q 
   ; r =a (3.2)
   r 
with the initial condition that the pressure at all points is constant
a≤ r ≤ b, t = o; P=Pi = constant (3.3)
and the boundary conditions that at the wellbore the flowrate is constant after the
production starts

r=a, t ≥ 0 : q = constant (3.4)

and at the outer boundary, the pressure is either a constant (and equal to the initial
pressure) in the case of pressure maintenance

r=b, t ≥ 0 : P = Pi = constant (3.5a)
or there is a sealing boundary with no flow across it in which case the pressure
gradient at the boundary is zero
P
r=b, t ≥ 0 :  = 0 (3.5b)
r
Solution to equations well known: Mathews and

Russell, SPE monograph - very complex solutions -
asymptotic solutions fair approximations of general
solution
Problem to identify flow regime
Steady state is simplest

Non-steady state involves time element
Steady State Solution
pressure at outer boundary, re, constant
flow rate, q, constant
p/t = 0 for all values of radius, r, and time, t.
P dP dr 2kh
 and the flow equation becomes q   dP
 r dr r   
integrating between the limits rw and r gives:
 q    r 
P  P   ln   (3.6)
w 2  kh   r 
w
Integrating between the limits rw and re gives:
 q  r 
P  P   ln e  (3.7)
e w 2kh r 
w
same as Darcy’s Law
Definition of pressure at external radius, re :
difficult to determine, use average reservoir pressure, P
Defined by area drained by each well in a reservoir.

Found by well test analysis and routine bottom hole
pressure measurements
1 re
P   PdV
V rw (3.8a)
where dV = 2rhdr (3.8b)
The volume of the well’s drainage zone, V, = (re2-rw2)h

and considering rw<<re, V ≈ re2 h 
2 re
P  2  Prdr
r e rw
from equation 3.6,
 q   r 
P  Pw   ln 
 2kh   rw 
2 re  q   r 
P 2  Pw  
 ln rdr
re rw  2kh   rw 
2  q  re  r 
P - Pw     ln  rdr
re  2kh  rw  rw 
2
re
2  q   1 2 r  re  2 
1 r
P - Pw  2    r ln     dr
re  2kh   2 rw  rw rw r  2 
2  q    r2e re r 2w rw   r2e r2w  
P - Pw  2     ln  ln      
re  2kh    2 rw 2 rw   4 4  
2
assuming r w is negligible
4
2  q   r e2 re r 2e 
P - Pw  2    ln  
re  2kh   2 rw 4 
 q   re 1 

P - Pw   ln   (3.10)

 2 kh   rw 2 
Example 1. A well produces oil at a constant flowrate of 15 stock tank cubic metres per day
(stm3/d). Use the following data to calculate the permeability in milliDarcys (mD).

Data

porosity,  19%
formation volume factor for oil, B o 1.3rm3/stm3 (reservoir cubic meters per stock
tank cubic meter)
net thickness of formation, h, 40m
viscosity of reservoir oil,  22x10-3 Pas
wellbore radius, rw 0.15m
external radius, re 350m
initial reservoir pressure, Pi 98.0bar
bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf 93.5bar
qreservoir = qstock tank x Bo
1bar = 105 Pa
Solution
the steady state inflow equation (accounting for fluid flowrate at

reservoir conditions in m3/s and pressure in Pa) is
qBo  re 
Pe  Pwf  ln 
2kh  rw 
qB o r 
k ln e
2 (Pe  Pwf )h  rw 

15x22x10 3 x1.3  350.00 
k ln  
24x3600x2x(98.0  93.5)x105 x40  0.15 
 341x10 15 m 2
 341mD
Unsteady State Flow Regimes
Dimensionless variables
normalised parameters
define solution to diffusivity equation for dimensionless variables
determine solution
calculate specific reservoir values from dimensionless solution
dimensionless radius, r D r
: rD 
rw
kt
dimensionless time, tD : tD 
crw2
2kh
dimensionless pressure, PD : PD (rD , t D )  ( )(Pi  Pr,t )
q 
(at a dimensionless radius and dimensionless time)

where
r = radius in question
rw = wellbore radius
k = permeability
t = time in question
 = porosity
 = viscosity
c = compressibility
h = thickness of the reservoir
Pi = initial reservoir pressure
Pr,t = pressure at the specified radius and time
then the radial diffusivity equation becomes
1   PD  PD (3.11)

 rD 
rD rD  rD  t D
There are other definitions of dimensionless variables, such as

dimensionless external radius
Unsteady State Solution
CTR solution obtained in several forms with different
assumptions and mathematical analyses
General considerations
Wellbore pressure and flow rate response
Pressure decline normally divided into 3 sections
depending on the value of flowing time and reservoir
geometry.
Initially, transient solution – infinite acting reservoir

case – reservoir appears infinite in extent
Late transient – boundaries start to affect the response
Semi-steady state or pseudo-steady state – pressure

perturbation affecting all parts of the reservoir – no
influx from aquifer
Hurst and van Everdingen Solution
CTR solution in 1949
Solved radial diffusivity using Laplace transform for both CTR and CTP
Solution describes pressure drop as function of time and radius for fixed
values of re and rw rock and fluid properties.
Dimensionless variables and parameters:
PD = f(tD,rD,reD)
where
tD = dimensionless time
rD = dimensionless radius
reD = re/rw = dimesionless external radius.
If the reservoir is fixed in size, i.e. reD is a particular value,
then the dimensionless pressure drop, PD, is a function of the dimensionless time, tD
and dimensionless radius, rD.
The pressure in a particular reservoir case can then be calculated at any time and/or
radius.
One of the most significant cases is at the wellbore since the pressure can be
measured routinely during production operations and compared to the theoretical
solutions.
The determination of a reservoir pressure at a location remote from a well may be

required for reasons of technical interest, but unless a well is drilled at that location,
the actual value cannot be measured.
At the wellbore radius, r=rw (or rD=1.0)
PD = f(tD, reD) (3.13)
 2m t D
2t D 3 
e J
2

1 ( m reD )
i.e. PD (t D )  2  lnreD   2  2 2 (3.14)
m 1 m ( J1 ( m reD )  J1 ( m ))
2
reD 4
where
m are the roots of J 1 ( m reD )Y1 ( m )  J 1 ( m )Y1 ( m reD )  0
J1 and Y1 are Bessel functions of the first and second kind
This series has been evaluated for several values of dimensionless external
radius, reD, over a wide range of values of dimensionless time, t D. The results are
presented in the form of tables (from Chatas, AT, “A Practical Treatment of non-
steady state Flow Problems in Reservoir Systems,” Pet. Eng. August 1953) in
“Well Testing” by J Lee, SPE Textbook series, Vol 1. A summary of the use of the
tables for constant terminal rate problems is as follows in Table 1.
Table Presents Valid for
2 i P D as a function of t D <1000 (from table) infinite acting reservoirs
ii t infinite acting reservoirs
P  2 D
for t D <0.01 (an extension of the table)
D

iii P  0.5(lnt  0.80907) for 100< t D <0.25 r eD
2
infinite acting reservoirs
D D
(an extension of the table)

2
iv P D as a function of t D <0.25 r eD (from table) finite reservoirs
2
3 i P D as a function of t D for 1.5< r eD <10 (from table) finite reservoirs, but if
the value of t D is smaller
than that listed for a
given value of r eD then
the reservoir is infinite
acting and therefore table
2 is used.
ii 2 t  0.25  3r 4
eD
 4r 4 lnr
eD eD
 2r 2  1
eD
finite reservoirs
P  D

4 r 2  1
2
D
r2  1
eD eD
for 25  t D and 0.25r  t

2
eD D
iii 2t 3 finite reservoirs

for r eD  > 1
2
P  D
 lnr 
D 2 eD
r 4
eD
Table 1 Hurst and Van Everdingen solutions to the Constant Terminal Rate Case
These equations are applicable to a well flowing at a constant rate or to a
reservoir and aquifer with a constant flowrate across the oil water contact.
Most problems involving flow at a well involve relationship 2(iii) and 3(iii);
most problems involving aquifer influx involve Tables 8 and 9.
It can be seen that in using these solutions, the pressure can be calculated
anywhere in the reservoir as long as the flow rate is known.
If the pressure in the reservoir at a location where the flow rate is

unknown is required then an alternative solution is needed (the Line
Source solution).
Example 2. A reservoir at an initial pressure, P i of 83.0bar produces to a well 15cm
in diameter. The reservoir external radius is 150m. Use the following data to
calculate the pressure at the wellbore after 0.01 hour, 0.1 hour, 1 hour, 10 hours and
100hours of production at 23stm3/d

Data

porosity,  21%
formation volume factor for oil, Bo 1.13rm3/stm3
net thickness of formation, h 53m
permeability, k 140mD
compressibility, c 0.2x10-7Pa-1

Solution
Using Hurst and Van Everdingen’s solution for CTR, the

dimensionless external radius and the dimensionless time are
calculated and used with the appropriate solution to determine the
dimensionless pressure drop. The dimensionless pressure drop is
then turned into the real pressure drop from which the bottomhole
flowing pressure is calculated.
re 150.00
reD    1000
rw 0.15
kt 140x10-15 xt
tD    0.148t
crw2 0.21x10x10-3 x0.2x10 7 x0.152
time time tD PD expression
(hour) (second) (0.148t)
0.01 36 5.3 1.3846 table 2
0.10 360 53.3 2.4146 table 2
1.00 3600 532.8 3.5473 table 2
10.00 36000 5328.0 4.6949 0.5(lntD+0.80907)
100.00 360000 53280.0 5.8462 0.5(lntD+0.80907)
the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf is
qBo
Pwf  Pi  PD
2kh

23x10x10 3 x1.13
Pwf at 0.01hour  83.0x10 
5
x1.3846 = 82.1x10 5 Pa
24x3600x2 140x10 x53
15
i.e. Pwf at 0.01 hour =82.1bar
similarly for the rest of the times
time PD Pwf
(hour) (bar)
0.00 0 83.0
0.01 1.3846 82.1
0.10 2.4146 81.4
1.00 3.5473 80.7
10.00 4.6949 80.0
100.00 5.8462 79.2
Line Source Solution
Assumes radius at wellbore is vanishingly small

allows calculationof the pressure in the reservoir using the
flowrate at the well
Disadvantage is that only works in Transient Flow Regime
Barriers alter applicability of Line Source Solution
However, principle of superposition allows combination of
different wells and use of imaginary wells to compensate for
the effect of barriers
In constant terminal rate problems, the flowrate at the well was given by
2rhk P
q  
 
  (3.15)
  r r r w
and for a line source, the following boundary condition must hold:
lim p q
r  for time, t > 0.
r  0 r 2 kh
Using the Boltzman Transformation
cr 2 1  P c P
y and substituting into the diffusivity equation ( r r(r r ) = k t )
4kt
gives
d 2 p dp
y 2 (1  y)  0
dy dy
with the boundary conditions
p  pi as y  
lim p q
2y 
y  0 y 2 kh
dp
If p'  then
dy
dp'
y  (1  y)p'  0
dy
S eparatin g th e v ariab les an d in tegratin g gives

ln p ’ = -ln y - y + C
d p C1 y
i.e. p '   e (3 .1 6 )
dy y
lim p q lim
w h ere C an d C 1 are co n stan ts o f in tegratio n . S in ce 2y   2C 1 e  y
y  0  y 2  kh y  0
q
then C1  and equation 3.16 becomes
4kh
dp q e  y
 which is integrated to give
dy 4 kh y
y
q e y
4 kh  y
p dy  C2 or

q e y
p 
4 kh y y
dy  C2
which can be rewritten as
q
p Ei(-y)  C 2
4 kh
Applying the boundary condition that p  pi as y   then C 2 = pi and the line source
solution is obtained:
q  cr 2 
pi  p(r,t)  Ei(- ) (3.17)

4kh  4kt 

The term Ei(-y) is the exponential integral of y (the Ei function) which is expressed as

e y
Ei( y)    dy .
y
y
It can be calculated from the series
 yn 
Ei( y)    lny   

n!n 

where  = 0.5772157 (Euler’s Constant). On inspection of the similarities in the Ei
function and the ln function, it can be seen that when y <0.01, Ei(  y)    lny and the
power terms can be neglected. Therefore,
Ei( y)  ln(1.781y) = ln(y )
(  1.781 = e   e 0 .5 7 7 2 15 7)
Solutions to the exponential integral can be coded into a spreadsheet and used with the
line source solution. Practically, the exponential integral can be replaced by a simpler
logarithm function as long as it is representative of the pressure decline. The limitation
25cr 2
that y<0.01 corresponds to time, t, from the start of production t  .
k
The equation can be applied anywhere in the reservoir, but is of significance at the
wellbore (i.e. for well test analysis) where typical values of wellbore radius, rw, and
reservoir fluid and rock parameters usually means that y<0.01 very shortly after
production starts. Therefore the line source solution can be approximated by
q  cr 2
P  Pi  (ln )
4kh 4kt
or, since -ln(y) = ln(y-1)
q 4kt
P  Pi  (ln 2) (3.18)
4kh cr
and if the pressure in the wellbore is of interest,
q 4kt
Pwf  Pi  (ln 2) (3.19)
4kh crw
The values of exponential integral have been calculated and presented in Matthews and
Russel’s Monograph and are produced in Table 4. The table presents negative values, i.e.
-Ei(-y). For values of y0.01, the ln approximation can be used. For values >10.9, the
decline in pressure calculated is negligible.
Range of Application and Limitations of
Use
Ei function has limitations on application
cannot represent the initial flow into wellbore (line
source)
reservoir must be infinite acting
Analysis of real reservoirs has shown that Ei function valid for
i) flowing time> 100crw2/k
rw is wellbore radius. constant 100 derived from reservoir
response
ii) time< cre2/4k
re is external radius, after this time, infinite acting period has
ended
E x a m p le 3 . A w e ll a n d re s e r v o ir a r e d e s c r ib e d b y th e f o llo w in g d a ta :
D a ta
p o r o s ity ,  19%
f o r m a tio n v o lu m e f a c to r f o r o il , B o 1 .4 r m 3 /s tm 3
n e t th ic k n e s s o f f o r m a tio n , h 100m
v is c o s ity o f re s e r v o ir o il,  1 .4 x 1 0 - 3 P a s
c o m p r e s s ib il ity , c 2 .2 x 1 0 - 9 P a - 1
p e r m e a b ility , k 100m D
w e llb o r e r a d iu s , r w 0 .1 5 m
e x te rn a l r a d iu s , r e 900m
i n itia l r e s e rv o ir p re s s u r e , P i 4 00 b ar
159
w e ll f lo w r a te ( c o n s ta n t) 1 5 9 s tm 3 /d a y = s tm 3 /s e c o n d
24x3600
s k in fa c t o r 0
D e te r m in e th e f o llo w in g :
1) th e w e llb o re flo w in g p re s s u r e a fte r 4 h o u r s p r o d u c tio n

2) th e p re s s u r e in th e r e s e rv o ir a t a r a d iu s o f 9 m a fte r 4 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n
3) th e p re s s u r e in th e r e s e rv o ir a t a r a d iu s o f 5 0 m a f te r 4 h o u r s p r o d u c t io n
4) th e p re s s u r e in th e r e s e rv o ir a t a r a d iu s o f 5 0 m a f te r 5 0 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n
Solution
The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required at

the specified radii and at the specified times (i.e. using the flowrate
measured at the wellbore, the pressures at the other radii and times are
calculated by the line source solution). SI units will be used so time will
be converted to seconds. Checks are made to ensure that:
i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the
line source solution to be accurate
ii) the reservoir is infinite acting.
Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei

function has to be made.
A C h e c k E i a p p lic a b ility
lin e s o u rc e n o t a c c u ra te u n til
1 0 0   c r w2
t 
k
1 0 0 x 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 -3 x 2 .2 x 1 0  9 x 0 .1 5 2
t 
1 0 0 x 1 0 -15
t > 1 3 .2 s
tim e is 4 h o u rs , th e re fo re lin e s o u rc e is a p p lic a b le .
B C h e c k re s e rv o ir is in fin ite a c tin g
  c r e2
th e re s e rv o ir is in fin ite a c tin g if th e tim e , t 
4k
3 9 2
0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 x 2 .2 x 1 0 x 9 0 0
i.e . t 
4 x 1 0 0 x 1 0 -15
t < 1185030s
t < 3 2 9 h o u rs
th e re fo re lin e s o u rc e s o lu tio n is a p p lic a b le .

1 ) th e b o tto m h o le flo w in g p re s s u re a fte r 4 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n , P w f
a t 4 h o u rs
i) c h e c k ln a p p ro x im a tio n to E i fu n c tio n
2 5   c r w2
th e ln a p p ro x im a tio n is v a lid if th e tim e , t 
k
3 9 2
2 5 x 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 x 2 .2 x 1 0 x 0 .1 5
t 
1 0 0 x 1 0 -15
t > 3 .3 s
th e re fo re ln a p p ro x im a tio n is v a lid .
q  B o     cr w2 
i i ) P wf  P i  l n   ( t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m s t o c k t a n k t o
4  kh  4kt 
r e s e rv o ir c o n d itio n s v ia th e fo r m a tio n v o lu m e f a c to r f o r o il, B o, flo w ra te s in re s e rv o ir
m 3/s a n d p re s s u re s in P a s c a l) .
q B o 1 5 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 1 .4
  1 5 = 28703
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100
2  3  9 2
 cr 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 x 2 .2 x 1 0 r
 -1 5 = 101597x10 -9
r2
4kt 4x100x10 x4x3600
P w f
= 400x 1 0 5 + 2 8 7 0 3 x l n ( 1 . 7 8 1 x 1 0 1 5 9 7 x 1 0 -9 x 0 . 1 5 2 )
= 400x 1 05 - 356249
= 3964 3 751Pa
= 3 9 6 .4 b ar
2 ) th e p re s s u re a fte r 4 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n a t a ra d iu s o f 9 m fro m th e w e llb o re
25 cr2
k
2 5 x 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 2 .2 x 1 0  9 x 9 2
t 
1 0 0 x 1 0 -15
t > 11850s
t > 3 .3 h o u rs
th e re fo re ln a p p ro x im a tio n is v a lid .
q  B o    cr 
2
ii) P  P i  l n   ( t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m s t o c k t a n k t o
4  kh  4kt 
re s e rv o ir c o n d itio n s v ia th e fo rm a tio n v o lu m e fa c to r fo r o il, B o a n d a ls o th e fa c t th a t th e
ra d iu s , r, is n o w a t 9 m fro m th e w e llb o re ).
q B o 1 5 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 1 .4
 = 28703
4kh 2 4 x 3 6 0 0 x 4  x 1 0 0 x 1 0 15x 1 0 0
 3  9
 cr 2
0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 x 2 .2 x 1 0 r 2
 -1 5 = 101597x10 -9
r2
4kt 4x100x10 x4x3600
P = 4 0 0 x 1 0 5 + 2 8 7 0 3 x l n ( 1 . 7 8 1 x 1 0 1 5 9 7 x 1 0 -9 x 9 2 )
= 4 0 0 x105 - 121209
= 3 9 8 78791Pa
= 3 9 8 .8 b a r
3 ) th e p re s s u re a fte r 4 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n a t a ra d iu s o f 5 0 m fro m th e w e llb o re
25 cr2
k
2 5 x 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 2 .2 x 1 0  9 x 5 0 2
t  -15
100x10
t > 365750s
t > 1 0 1 .6 h o u r s
th e re fo re ln a p p ro x im a tio n is n o t v a lid a n d th e E i fu n c tio n is u s e d .
q  B o    cr 
2
ii) P  P i  Ei    ( t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m s t o c k t a n k t o

4  kh  4kt 
ra d iu s , r, is n o w a t 5 0 m fro m th e w e llb o re ).
q  B o 1 5 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 1 .4
  1 5 = 28703
4 k h 2 4x 36 00 x4  x 10 0x 10 x1 00
 cr 2
0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 2 .2 x 1 0  9 5 0 2
 = 0 .2 5 4
4kt 4 x 1 0 0 x 1 0 -1 5 x 4 x 3 6 0 0
5
P = 4 0 0 x 1 0 + 2 8 7 0 3 x E i( - 0 .2 5 4 )
E i( - 0 .2 5 4 ) = - 1 .0 3 2 ( b y lin e a r in te r p o la tio n o f th e v a lu e s in T a b le 4 )
P = 4 0 0 x 1 0 5 + 2 8 7 0 3 x - 1 .0 3 2
5
= 4 0 0 x 1 0 -2 9 6 2 2
= 3 9 9 70378P a
= 3 9 9 .7 b a r
4 ) th e p re s s u re a fte r 5 0 h o u rs p ro d u c tio n a t a ra d iu s o f 5 0 m fro m th e w e llb o re
25 cr2
k
2 5 x 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 2 .2 x 1 0  9 x 5 0 2
t 
1 0 0 x 1 0 -1 5
t > 365750s
t > 1 0 1 .6 h o u r s
th e re fo re ln a p p ro x im a tio n is n o t v a lid a n d th e E i fu n c tio n is u s e d .
q B o    cr 2 
ii) P  P i  Ei    ( t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m s t o c k t a n k t o
4  kh  4kt 
ra d iu s , r, is n o w a t 5 0 m fro m th e w e llb o re a n d th e tim e is n o w 5 0 h o u rs a fte r s ta rt o f
p ro d u c tio n ).
q B o 1 5 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0  3 x 1 .4
 = 28703
4kh 2 4 x 3 6 0 0 x 4  x 1 0 0 x 1 0 15x 1 0 0
2  3  9 2
 cr 0 .1 9 x 1 .4 x 1 0 x 2 .2 x 1 0 50
 -1 5 = 0 .0 2 0
4k t 4x100x 10 x50x3600
5
P = 4 0 0 x 1 0 + 2 8 7 0 3 x E i( - 0 .0 2 0 )
E i( - 0 .0 2 0 ) = - 3 .3 5 5
5
P = 4 0 0 x 1 0 + 2 8 7 0 3 x - 3 .3 5 5
5
= 4 0 0 x 1 0 -9 6 3 0 0
= 3 9 9 03700P a
= 3 9 9 .0 b a r
Summary
time radius pressure

(hours) (m) (bar)
0 all 400.0
4 0.15 396.4
4 9.00 398.8
4 50.00 399.7
50 50.00 399.0
Skin Factor
Assumption of constant permeability around wellbore

Formation damage during drilling and completion and during
production causes alteration of permeability around wellbore.
Extends up to a few feet from wellbore into reservoir
If reservoir fractured (naturally or by workover) permeability
may be increased
Ei function fails to account for these conditions
Skin zone defined as zone around wellbore with altered
permeability
bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf
pressure profile if no skin zone was present
P wf(no skin) actual pressure profile through skin zone
Pskin
skin zone
Pwf(skin)
permeability, ks permeability, k
rw rs
radius, r
Pskin = Pwf(skin) - Pwf(no skin)

Assume skin zone equal to altered zone of uniform
permeability, ks with an outer radius rs
Additional pressure drop across zone Ps can be modelled by

steady state inflow
Assumed that after initial time, flow regime around wellbore

close to steady state
q r  q  r  q k  r 
Ps= ln 

s

- ln 

s

 = (  1)ln 

s


2k s h rw  2kh rw  2kh k s r
 w 
q q   k  rs 
Pi  Pwf  Ei(y)  Ps   Ei(y)  2
 ln 
 1

4kh 4kh 
 k s  rw 
If at the wellbore the logarithm approximation can be substituted for the Ei function,
then:
q   crw2  k  r 
Pi  Pwf  ln( )  2
  1
ln

s

4kh 
 4kt k s  rw 

A skin factor, s, can then be defined as:
 k  rs
s  
  1
ln
k s  rw
and the drawdown defined as
q   crw2 
Pi  Pwf  ln( )  2s 
4kh  4kt 
Equation shows that positive skin means decrease in
permeability around well
Measured as part of the objectives of well testing

Extent of altered zone unknown
Altered zone around a particular well affects only the

pressure near that well
Semi-Steady State Solution
Once boundaries felt, transience stops
P dP
  constant
t dt
where no flow across external boundary,r e
P

r
Similar to steady state, pressure drop between
wellbore and external radius

wellbore and average pressure
may be calculated.
Average pressure usually known in reservoirs - this is used to

determine pressure drop
Under semi-steady state conditions, pressure profile
averaged over reservoir drainage cell
If several wells in reservoir, cells stabilise drainage areas

based on flow rates
cV(Pi  P)  qt
where V = pore volume of the radial cell; q = constant production rate; t = total flowing
time, c = isothermal compressibility.
dV
q
dt
dV qdt dt
 q
dP dP dP
1 dV 
since c    
V dP T
dP
q  cV
dt
dP q

dt cV
which, for the drainage of a radial cell, can be expressed as
dP q
 (3.29)
c re h
2
dt
Substitution of equation 3.29 in the radial diffusivity equation

1  P c P
r r(r r ) = k t
gives
1  P c q
(r ) = 
r r r k c re2 h
which is
1  P q
(r ) =  2
r r r  re hk
Integration gives
dP q r 2
r   C1 (3.30)
dr 2re2 kh
dP
at the outer boundary the pressure gradient is zero, i.e.  0 therefore
dr
q
C1  and substitution into equation 3.30 gives
2kh
dP q 1 r 
 
  2 
 (3.31)
dr 2kh r re 
When integrated, this gives
q  r
2 re
P Pr
 
lnr  2 
2kh 
Pwf
2re rw
or
q  r r2 
Pr  Pwf  
ln  2 
 (3.32)
2 kh  rw 2re 
rw2
The term 2 is considered negligible, and in the case where the pressure at the external
2re
radius, re is considered (including the skin factor, s, around the well),
q  re 1 
Pe  Pwf  
ln   s
2kh  rw 2 
 (3.33)

If the average pressure is used, then the volume weighted average pressure of the
drainage cell is calculated as previously in the steady state flow regime, i.e.
2 re
P  2  Prdr
r e rw
where r w and re are the wellbore and external radii as before, and P is the pressure in each
radial element, dr at a distance r from the centre of the wellbore. In this case,
2 q  re
r r 2 
P  Pwf  2  r ln  2 
 dr

re 2kh r  rw 2re 
w
and integrating gives
 r 
re r 2 r r
r
1r
e2 e
i)   
 r ln r dr = 2 ln r   dr
r w w   w r r r 2
w
w
r 2 r 
r

r 2 r
e e
=  ln    
2 rw r 4 r
w w
2 2
re re re
 ln 
2 rw 4
re
r 3  r 4 re
re2
ii)  2 dr =
 2  
r 2re
w
8re r w
8
and substitution into equation 3.32 with inclusion of the skin factor gives
q  re 3 
P  Pwf  
ln  + s
2kh  rw 4 
 (3.34)

The pressure differences (Pr - Pwf), (Pe- Pwf), ( P -Pwf) do not change with time, whereas Pr,
Pe, Pw and P do change.
Using Initial Pressure, Pi
If the pressure drop from initial pressure conditions is required then equation 3.27 may be
written as:
 q 
P  Po   t o  t  (3.35)
cV
 qt 
P  Pi    (3.36)
cV 
where q is the volume flow rate, c is the isothermal compressibility, V is the original
volume t o is a reference time after which flow starts, t is the flowing time, Po is the
pressure at the reference time and P is the pressure at time t after the flow starts. P is the
average reservoir pressure after time, t. Subtracting equation 3.36 from equation 3.34
gives
q re 3 2kt
Pi - Pwf = 2kh (ln r - 4 + cr 2 ) (3.37)
w e
Generalised Reservoir Geometry:
Flow Equation under SSS
Key factor: SSS feels boundaries
Finite amount of fluid in reservoir
Equation built for radial geometries, but non-radial shapes

can be accommodated by Dietz shape factor
Using the average reservoir pressure and assuming no skin factor, the pressure drop is
described by equation 3.34 as
q  re 3 
P  Pwf  
ln  
 (3.34)
2kh  rw 4 
 r 3
Expressing the terms 
 r  4
ln e
as
 w 
1  re 3  
1  re 2 
3  1  re  2
 3 
2 

2ln
  
  ln  
    ln 
 
  ln 
e 

2  rw 2  2  rw  2  2    
 rw  
r 2 


e

 
1 rw  
= ln  3 
2  2  
 e  
  
 
 
1  re  
2
= ln 
2  2 23 
rw e 

 

The area drained (for a radial geometry) is re2 therefore the logarithm term becomes
 
  
 4re    
2
4A 
 3 
1.781 x 31.6 x rw 
4rw2e 2  
2


 

where A is the area drained,   1.781 and Dietz shape factor, CA (for a well in a radial
drainage area) =31.6.
The final form of the generalised semi steady state inflow equation for an average
reservoir pressure is
q 1 4A 
P  Pwf  
 ln 
2  s (3.38)
2kh 2 C A rw 
For the pressure drop between initial reservoir pressure conditions and some bottom hole
flowing pressure during semi steady state flow, equation 3.37 can be expressed as
q 1 4A 2kt
Pi - Pwf = ( ln 2  ) (3.39)
2 kh 2 CA rw cA
or
q 1 4A 2kt
Pwf = Pi - ( ln  ) (3.40)
2 kh 2 CA rw cA
2
In a convenient dimensionless form, this can be expressed as
2kh 1 4A  kt  r 2
(P - Pwf )  ln  2    w
cr2  A
q 2 C A rw2  w 
or
1 4A rw2
PD t D  ln 2  2 t D (3.41)
2 CA rw A
The term involving the wellbore radius can be accommodated by using the following
modified dimensionless time
rw2
t DA  t D
A
in which case
1 4A
PD t D  ln  2 t DA
2 CA rw2
Series of common shape factors with wells located at
particular positions
Values of dimensionless tDA
i) infinite solution with error < 1% for tDA <X

X is value of maximum elapsed time during which reservoir
infinite acting and Ei function can be used
ii) solution with less than 1% error for tDA >X

SSS solution used with error < 1% for elapsed time t
iii) solution exact for tDA >X

SSS solution for exact results for an elapsed time t
Real reservoir:
volume drained by well related to its flow rate
volume correlated to structural map to determine

shape
shape factor values then used to locate position of

well near boundaries
not an exact procedure and heterogeneity can alter

pressure distribution
Application of CTR Solution in Well
Testing
So far, pressure drops in a reservoir have been considered as

a result of a flow rate in a well for a period of time
Therefore for given values of porosity, permeability, reservoir

geometry and flow regime, the pressure at a particular
distance can be calculated
In reality, only flow rates and pressure can be measured at

the wells, and the most significant parameter to be verified is
the permeability
This is part of well test analysis where the pressure
in a well is measured continuously over time, the
flow regime is identified and the appropriate flow
equation applied to the data to determine the
permeability
It is important to note that this section considers an

initially undisturbed reservoir in which a well is
brought on production.
Pressure decline at well measured through time
It is reasonable to expect the reservoir to go through a flow

regime that starts in transience than changes to steady state
or semi steady state.
In the following example, the reservoir is considered to be an

isolated block, therefore SSS flow regime is expected after
Initial transient solution used to calculate permeability and

skin factor
SSS to determine reservoir limits

Example 5. A well is tested by producing it at a constant flow rate of 238stm 3/day (stock
tank) for a period of 100 hours. The reservoir data and flowing bottomhole pressures
recorded during the test are as follows:
Data
porosity,  18%
net thickness of formation, h 6.1m
compressibility, c 2.18 x10-9Pa-1
well flowrate (constant) 238stm3/day
Time (hours) Bottomhole
flowing
pressure
(bar)
0.0 241.3
1.0 201.1
2.0 199.8
3.0 199.1
4.0 198.5
5.0 197.8
7.5 196.5
10.0 195.3
15.0 192.8
30.0 185.2
40.0 180.2
50.0 176.7
60.0 173.2
70.0 169.7
80.0 166.2
90.0 162.7
100.0 159.2
1. Calculate the effective permeability and skin factor of the well.
2. Make an estimate of the area being drained by the well and the Dietz shape factor.
Solution
The description of the test is such that this is the first time the well has been put on
production and the reservoir pressure will decline at a rate dictated by the solutions of the
diffusivity equation. The pressure decline has been recorded at the wellbore (as in the
table of data) and it is expected that there will be an unsteady state (transient) period
initially followed by a semi steady state or steady state flow period. It is thought to be an
isolated block therefore there would be a depletion of the reservoir pressure under semi
steady state conditions expected. The initial unsteady state or transient flow period can be
used to determine the permeability and skin factor of the well, and the subsequent semi
steady state flow period can be used to detect the reservoir limits. SI units will be used at
reservoir conditions, therefore flowrates are in m3/s and the formation volume factor for
oil is used to convert from stock tank to reservoir volumes. The pressure related items are
in Pascal.
1. The permeability and skin factor can be determined from the initial transient period
using the line source solution:
q  4kt  
Pwf  Pi  
ln
   2s
2 
4kh
 crw  

or
Pwf  m lntc
(3.19)
Examining the data, the following areconstant:
initial pressure, Pi, permeability, k,  , porosity, , viscosity, , compressibility, c,

wellbore radius, rw, andskinfactor, s. Bothpermeability andskinfactor are unknown(but
they are known to be constant). Therefore in equation 3.19, there is a linear relationship
between the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf andthe logarithmof time, lnt, the slope of
the relationship, m, equal to
q
m
4kh
F r o m t h i s , t h e u n k n o w n v a l u e , i .e . t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y , k , c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . O n c e t h e
p e r m e a b i l i ty i s k n o w n , t h e e q u a t i o n c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o t h e r u n k n o w n ,
th e s k in fa c to r, a s :
P i  P wf  4kt 
2s   ln  
2 
m    cr w 
A n y c o h e re n t s e t o f d a ta p o in ts c a n b e u s e d to d e te rm in e th e p e rm e a b ility a n d s k in ,
h o w e v e r, it is n o t c le a r w h e n th e d a ta re p re s e n t th e lin e s o u rc e s o lu tio n . T h e re fo re a ll o f
th e p re s s u re d a ta a re p lo tte d a n d a lin e a r fit a tta c h e d to th o s e d a ta w h ic h s h o w th e lin e a r
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e b o tto m h o le flo w in g p re s s u re , P w f a n d th e lo g a rith m o f tim e , ln t.
time Bottomhole ln time
(hours) flowing
pressure
(bar)
0.0 241.3
1.0 201.1 0.0
2.0 199.8 0.7
3.0 199.1 1.1
4.0 198.5 1.4
5.0 197.8 1.6
7.5 196.5 2.0
10.0 195.3 2.3
15.0 192.8 2.7
30.0 185.2 3.4
40.0 180.2 3.7
50.0 176.7 3.9
60.0 173.2 4.1
70.0 169.7 4.2
80.0 166.2 4.4
90.0 162.7 4.5
100.0 159.2 4.6
Pressure- time data (log to base e)
210
200 slope = 1.98 bar/unit
190
180
P
170
160
150
0 1 2 3 4 5
ln flowing time, t (hours)
T h e p lo ts o f b o tto m h o le flo w in g p re s s u re s h o w th a t th e tra n s ie n t p e rio d (fo r w h ic h th e
lo g a rith m a p p ro x im a tio n is v a lid ) la s ts fo r a p p ro x im a te ly 4 h o u rs a n d fro m th e p lo t, th e
s lo p e , m , c a n b e d e te r m in e d to b e 1 .9 8 b a r /lo g c y c le . S u b s titu tin g th is in to th e e q u a tio n
g iv e s :
q B o 2 3 8 x 1 .2 x 1 x 1 0  3 1 5 2
k   5  218x10 m  218m D
4m h 2 4 x 3 6 0 0 x 4  x 1 .9 8 x 1 0 x 6 .1
(c o n v e rtin g fro m s to c k ta n k c u b ic m e tre s /d a y to re s e rv o ir c u b ic m e tre s /s e c o n d a n d fro m

b a r to P a s c a l p ro d u c in g a p e rm e a b ility in te rm s o f m 2 w h ic h is th e n c o n v e rte d to m D ).
To determine the skin factor, the slope, m, of the line is theoretically extrapolated to a
convenient time. This is usually a time of 1 hour.
The bottomhole pressure associated with this time is calculated and this is used to
determine a pressure drop (Pi - Pwf ) during the time (t1 hour - t 0).
This is then equal to the pressure drop calculated from the ln function plus an excess
caused by the skin. In this case, a real pressure measurement was recorded at time 1
hour, but this is not necessarily the same number as calculated from the extrapolation
of the linear section of the relationship since the real pressure recorded at time 1 hour
may not be valid for use with the Ei function, i.e. although it was recorded, it may
have been too early for the Ei function to accurately approximate the reservoir flow
regime.
In this case P1 hour =201.2bar and therefore
Pi  P1 hour  4kt  241.3  201.2  4x218x10 -15 x3600 

2s   ln 
  
2 
 ln  
 crw 
3 9
m 1.98 1.781x0.18x1x10 x2.18x10 x0.1 
2
2s=20.25-13.02 = 7.23
s=3.6
2. To determine the area drained and the shape factor, the data from the
semi steady state flow regime are required.
From equation 3.29, there will be a linear relationship between

bottomhole flowing pressure and time. This is related to the area of the
drained volume and the shape factor.
To determine the gradient of the pressure decline, the bottomhole flowing

pressure and time are plotted using Cartesian co-ordinates
Pressure- time data
210
200
190
180 slope = 0.35 bar/hour
170
160
150
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Flowing time, t (hours)
F r o m th e p lo t, th e g r a d ie n t is d e te r m in e d to b e - 0 .3 5 b a r /h o u r o r - 9 .7 2 P a /s . T h is is r e la te d
to th e v o lu m e tr ic c o m p r e s s ib ility o f th e r e s e r v o ir , i.e .
dP q
 
dt cA h 
w h e re q is th e flo w ra te , c is th e c o m p re s s ib ility , A is th e a re a o f th e re s e rv o ir, h is th e
th ic k n e s s a n d  is th e p o ro s ity . T a k in g a c c o u n t o f th e fo rm a tio n v o lu m e fa c to r, B o,
qB
A   o
dP
ch
dt
2 3 8 x 1 .2
A  
2 4 x 3 6 0 0 x 2 .1 8 x 1 0 -9 x 6 .1 x 0 .1 8 x - 9 .7 2
A = 142076m 2
T h e s e m i s te a d y s ta te in flo w e q u a tio n is
q  1 4 A 2  k t
P w f = P i- ( ln 2  + s)
2  k h 2  C A r w   cA
T h e lin e a r e x tra p o la tio n o f th is lin e to s m a ll v a lu e s o f t g iv e s th e s p e c ific v a lu e o f P w f o f

1 9 4 .2 b a r a t t= 0 . I n r e a lity , a t t= 0 , th e f lo w r a te h a s n o t s ta r te d , s o th is w ill b e n a m e d P 0.
I n s e r tin g th is v a lu e in e q u a tio n 3 .3 9 a t t= 0 , c o n v e r tin g b a r to P a s c a l a n d in c lu d in g th e
s k in fa c to r g iv e s :
q   4A 
P i  P   ln 2  ln C  2s 
0
4  kh   r w
A

i.e .
 4 x 142076 
(2 41.3  194.2 ) x10
5
 1 . 98 x10
5
 l n  ln C  2 x 3.6 2 
 1.7 81x0.1 2 A 
 
1 7 .2 8 + 7 .2 4 - 2 3 .7 9 = 0 .7 3 = ln C A
C A = 2 .0 8
FromTable5, thisisclosetotheconfigurationinFigure11.
Figure11Well configurationfor Dietzshapefactor of 2.0769

The Constant Terminal Pressure Solution
In the constant terminal rate solution of the diffusivity equation, the rate is known
to be constant at some part of the reservoir and the pressures are calculated
throughout the reservoir.
Conversely, in the constant terminal pressure solution, the pressure is known to

be constant at some point in the reservoir, and the cumulative flow at any
particular radius can be calculated.
The constant terminal pressure solution is not as confusing as the constant

terminal rate solution simply because less is known about it. Only one constant
terminal pressure solution is available, so there is no decision to be made over
which to use as in the case of the constant terminal rate solutions.
Hurst and Van Everdingen produced the solutions for cases of an infinite
radial system with a constant pressure at the inner boundary and for
constant pressure at the inner boundary and no flow across the outer
boundary.
These can model, for example, a wellbore whose bottomhole flowing

pressure is held constant whilst flow occurs in the reservoir, or they can
model a reservoir surrounded by an aquifer.
The same geometrical and property conditions apply as for the constant
terminal rate solutions: a radial geometry of constant thickness with a well
in the centre, and with fixed rock and fluid properties throughout,
however, in this case there is a pressure drop from an initial pressure to
some constant value.
In the case of aquifer encroachment, the radius of the “well” is the
radius of the initial oil water contact.
The constant terminal pressure solution is most widely used for

calculating the water-encroachment (natural water influx) into the
original oil and gas zone due to water drive in a reservoir.
Hurst and van Everdingen Solution
As mentioned previously, the radial diffusivity equation in dimensionless form is:
1   PD  PD
r  (4.1)
rD rD  D rD  t D
where the dimensionless terms are:
r
dimensionless radius: rD 
ro
re
dimensionless external radius: reD 
ro
kt
dimensionless time: tD 
cro2
Pi  P
dimensionless pressure drop: PD 
Pi  Pro
where
ro = outer radius of the oil reservoir (i.e. the oil water contact)
PD = 0 at tD = 0 for all rD
PD = 1 at rD = 1 for all tD>0
PD
=0 for all tD>0
rD rD  r eD
Since the instantaneous production rate, q

2ro hk P
q
 r
then the cumulative produced water, W e

t
We   qdt
0
Hurst and Van Everdingen developed solutions for the constant terminal pressure
condition of the form:
q
q D (t D )  (4.2)
2  khP
where
qD(tD) = dimensionless influx rate evaluated at r D = 1.0 and which describes the
change in rate from zero to q due to pressure drop P applied at the outer
reservoir boundary r o at time t = 0.
The dimensionless cumulative produced water volume, QD(tD)
tD
Q D (t D )   q Ddt D
0
 k t
2khP cro2 0
 qdt (4.3)
from which the cumulative produced water is
We =  2h cro PQ D (t D )

2
(4.4)
where W e is the cumulative water influx due to pressure drop P imposed at the
radius ro at the initial time, t=0.
QDtD is the dimensionless cumulative water influx function giving the
dimensionless influx per unit pressure drop, P imposed at the reservoir/ aquifer
boundary at time t=0.
Equation 4.4 is often expressed as
We = UPQD(tD) (4.5)
where: U = 2fhcro2 (4.6)

f = “aquifer constant” for radial geometry describing the proportion of the
aquifer in contact with the oil rim as shown in figure 12.
WATER
OIL
ro 
re (encroachment angle) 
fraction, f = 
360 360 
Figure 12 Illustration of nomenclature for water influx problems

The solutions, Q D(tD) are prepared in Tables 8 and 9 as functions of t D. These
tables are described in Lee and are also available as equations for direct use in
spreadsheets. The use of the tables depends on whether the reservoir is infinite
or bounded.
(a) Bounded Aquifer (Table 9). Irrespective of the geometry, there is a value
of tD for which the dimensionless water influx reaches a constant value:
1 2
Q DMax  r  1
2 eD
(4.7)
reD = re/ro
If Q D in equation 4.7 is used in equation 4.4, for a full aquifer (f = 1.0), the
result is
re2 - ro2
We = 2hcro 2 P ( 2 ) =  ( re2 - ro2 )hcP (4.8)
2ro
This is also equal to the total influx occurring, assuming that the P is
instantaneously tran smitted throughout the aquifer. Therefore, once the plateau
level of Q D(tD) has been reached, it means that the minimum value of t D at
which this occurs has been sufficiently long for the instantaneous drop P to be
felt throughout the aquifer. The plateau level of Q D(tD) is then the maximum
dimensionless water influx resulting from such a pressure drop.
(b) Infinite aquifer (Table 8). There is no maximum value of Q D(tD) reached in
this case since the water influx is always governed by transient flow co
nditions.
Example 6. Water influx: Hurst and Van Everdingen’s Constant Terminal Pressure
solution
A reservoir is surrounded by an aquifer with an external boundary as shown in figure 13.
water
radius of the oil 1525m
reservoir, r o
oil

Figure 13 Plan of the reservoir/aquifer
Data
porosity,  23%
net thickness of formation, h 50m
viscosity of reservoir oil,  0.7x10-3 Pas
oil reservoir radius, ro 1525m
instantaneous pressure change, P 10bar
1) Calculate the water influx at times of 0.1 year, 0.5 year, 1.0
year, 1.5 years 2.0 years and 2.2 years after the instantaneous
pressure drop at the oil water contact.
2) Calculate the water influx if it is assumed that the same pressure

drop is transmitted simultaneously through the aquifer.
Solution
The constant terminal pressure solutions shown in Tables 8 and 9 are used to find the
dimensionless cumulative water influx (at a particular dimensionless external radius) at a
particular dimensionless time from which the cumulative water influx is calculated. The
first step is to calculate the dimensionless time, then look up the table for the
corresponding dimensionless cumulative water influx.
kt
tD 
cro2
170x10-15 t
tD 
0.23x0.7x103 x1.7x109 x15252
tD = 2.7x10-7t
80º
aquifer constant, f   0.22
360º
cumulative water influx,
We = 2fchro2P QD(tD)
We = 2 x 0.22x0.23x1.7x10-9x50x15252x10x105x QD(tD)
We = 62847.6 QD(tD)
dimensionless external radius,

r 4575
reD  e  3
ro 1525
time time tD QD We
(R eD=3)
(year) (s) (table (m3)
9)
0.1 0.1x365x24x3600 = 2.7x10 -7x 3153600 = 1.41 88615
3153600 0.85
-7
0.5 0.5x365x24x3600 = 2.7x10 x 15768000 = 3.32 208654
15768000 4.26
-7
1.0 1.0x365x24x3600 = 2.7x10 x 31536000 = 3.87 243220
31536000 8.52
-7
1.5 1.5x365x24x3600 = 2.7x10 x 47304000 = 3.97 249505
47304000 12.77
2.0 2.0x365x24x3600 = -7
2.7x10 x 63072000 = 4.00 251390
63072000 17.03
-7
2.2 2.2x365x24x3600 = 2.7x10 x 69379200 = 4.00 251390
69379200 18.73
From the table the increase in cumulative water influx through time can be seen. After tD
of 17.03, Q D(tD) becomes constant at 4.00 indicatin g that the maximum water influx for
this reservoir under 10 bar pressure drop is 251390m3.
2) If the pressure drop is instantaneously transmitted through the reservoir, the expansion
and therefore encroachment of the water is
We = (re2 - ro2)fchP
We =  x (45752 - 15252)x0.22x0.23x1.7x10-9x50x10x105
We = 251390m3
This is the same as calculated by the constant terminal pressure solution but without the
variation in water influx through time.
Note in the example the declining rate of water influx wit h time and also that unlike a
steady-state system, the values of influx do not double for doubling of time.
If the permeability of the aquifer rock is very low, for instance, the aquifer may provide
only a small volume of water to the reservoir during it’s producing life, which may
essentially produce as a depletion type reservoir.
Superposition
In the analyses so far, the well flow rate has been instantly altered from zero to
some constant value.
In reality, the well flowrates may vary widely during normal production operations
and of course the wells may be shut in for testing or some other operational reason.
The reservoir may also have more than a single well draining it and consideration
must be taken of this fact.
There may be some combination of several wells in a reservoir and/or several

flowrates at which each produce. The calculation of reservoir pressures can still be
done using the previous simple analytical techniques if the solutions for each rate
change, for example, are superposed on each other.
In other words, the total pressure drop at a wellbore can be calculated as the sum of
the effects of several flowrate changes within the well, or it may be the sum of the
effects caused by production from nearby wells.
There is also the possibility of using infinite acting solutions to mimic the effects of
barriers in the reservoir by using imaginary or image wells to produce a pressure
response similar to that caused by the barrier.

Mathematically, all linear differential equations fulfill the following conditions:

(i) if P is a solution, then C x P is also a solution, where C is a constant.
(ii) if both P1 and P2 are solutions, then P1 + P2 is also a solution.

These two properties form the basis for generating the constant terminal rate and
constant terminal pressure cases.
The solutions may be added together to determine the total effect on pressure, for
example, from several applications of the equation.
This is illustrated if a typical problem is considered: that of multiple wells in a reservoir.

Effects of Multiple Wells
In a reservoir where more than one well is producing, the effect of each well’s
pressure perturbation on the reservoir is evaluated independently
(i.e. as though the other wells and their flow rate/ pressure history did not exist),
then the pressure drop calculated at a particular well at a particular time is the
simple addition of all of the individual effects superimposed one effect upon the
other.
Consider 3 wells, X, Y and Z, which start to produce at the same time from an
infinite acting reservoir (figure 14).
Superposition shows that:

(Pi-Pwf)Total at Well Y

= (Pi -P)Due to well X + (Pi-P)Due to well Y
+ (Pi-P)Due to well Z
Assuming unsteady state flow conditions, the line source solution can
be used to determine the pressure in well Y.
It is assumed here that the logarithm function can be used for well Y
itself and that there will be a skin around the well.
The effects of wells X and Z can be described by the Ei function.
There is no skin factor associated with the calculation of pressure drop

caused by these wells, since the pressure drop of interest is at well Y
(i.e. even if wells X and Z have non-zero skin factors, their skin factors
affect the pressure drop only around wells X and Z).
The total pressure drop is then:
 q Y    crwY
2
 
(Pi  Pwf ) total at well Y   ln    2S Y 
  
4kh   4kt  
 q X    crXY
2

  Ei  

4kh   4kt  
 q Z    crZY
2

  Ei  

4kh   4kt  
Where
qY is the flowrate from well Y
qX is the flowrate from well X
qZ is the flowrate from well Z
rwY is the radius of well Y
rXY is the distance of well Y from the X well
rZY is the distance of well Z from the X well
the rest of the symbols have their usual meaning

This technique can be used to examine the effects of any number of wells in an
infinite acting reservoir.
This could be to predict possible flowing well pressures amongst a group of

wells, or to deliberately use the interaction between wells to check reservoir
continuity.
These interference tests and other extended well tests are designed to
characterise the reservoir areally rather than to determine only the permeability
and skin factor around individual wells.
Example 7. Two wells, well 1 and well 2, are drilled in an undeveloped reservoir.
Well 1 is completed and brought on production at 500stm 3/day and produces for 40 days
at which time Well 2 is completed and brought on production at 150stm 3/day.
Using the data provided, calculate the pressure in Well 2 after it has produced for 10 days
(and assuming Well 1 continues to produce at its flowrate).
Therefore, Well 1 produces for 50days when its pressure influence is calculated; Well 2
produces for 10 days when its pressure influence is calculated.

The wells are 400m apart and the nearest boundary is 4000m from each well.

Data

porosity, , 21%
wellbore radius, rw (both wells) 0.15m
Well 1 flowrate (constant) 500stm3/day
Well 2 flowrate (constant) 150stm3/day
skin factor around both wells 0
Solution
The line source solution is used to determine the bottomhole flowing pressure at Well 2
after 10 days prod uction, accounting for the effect of 50days production from Well 1.
Checks are made to ensure that:
i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line source
solution to be accurate
A Check Ei applicability
line source not accurate until

100  cr 2
t  w
k
100x0.21x0 .7x10 -3x8.7x10 9 x0.15 2
t 
80x10 -15
t >36s
time is 50 days, therefore line source is applicable.
B Check reservoir is infinite acting
cre2
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t 
4k
 
0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x4000 2
i.e. t 
4x80x10-15
t < 63945000
t <740 days
therefore line source solution is applicable.
The bottomhole flowing pressure at Well 2 is the sum of the pressure drops caused by its
production and by the pressure drop generated by the production of Well 1.
Pwf at Well 2 = Pi -Pwell2 flowing for 10 days -Pwell1 flowing for 40+10 days 400m away
A) At 10 days, contribution to pressure drop from production from Well 2
check ln approximation to Ei function
25cr
2
the ln approximation i s valid if the time, t

k
3 2 9
25x0.21x0.7x10 x8.7x10 x0.15
t -15
80x10
t > 9s
therefore ln approximation is valid.
qB o   crw2 
Pwf  Pi  ln 
4kh  4kt 
qB o  crw2 
Pi - Pwf   ln 

4 kh  4kt 
qB o

150x0.7x10 3 x1.4
  = -47011

4 kh 24x3600x4x80x10 15 x36

 
crw2 1.781x0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x0.15 2
 -15
= 185x10 -9
4kt 4x80x10 x10x24x3600
Pi - P wf = -47011x ln(1 85x10 -9)
Pi - P wf = -47011x -15.5
Pi - P wf =728671Pa
B) At 10 days production from well 2, well 1 has been producing for 50 days and its
contribution to pressure drop at Well 2 is calculated as follows.
check ln approximation to Ei function
25cr 2
the ln approximation is valid if the time, t
k
3 9 2
25x0.21x0.7x10 x8.7x10 x400
t
80x10 -15
t > 63945000s
t > 740 days
therefore ln approximation is not valid and the Ei function is used.

qB o  cr12-2 
Pi - Pwf at Well2caused by Well1   Ei  
4kh  4kt 
qB o

500x0.7x10 3 x1.4
  = 156704

4 kh 
24x3600x4 x80x10 x36
15
 
cr1-2 0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x 400 2
2
 = 0.148
4kt 4x80x10-15 x50x24x3600
Ei(-0.148) = -1.476
Pi - Pwf at Well 2 caused by Well 1 = -156704x-1.476

Pi - Pwf at Well 2 caused by Well 1 = 231295Pa
Pwf Well2 = 180.0 - 7.3 - 2.3

Pwf Well2 = 170.4bar
Principle of Superposition and Approximation of
Variable - Rate Pressure Histories
The previous section illustrated the effect of the production from several wells in a
reservoir on the bottomhole flowing pressure of a particular well.
Of equal interest is the effect of several rate changes on the bottomhole pressure
within a particular well.
This is a more realistic situation compared to those illustrated previously where a well
is simply brought on production at a constant flowrate for a specific period of time.
For instance, a newly completed well may have several rate changes during initial
cleanup after completion, then during production testing then finally during production
as rates are altered to match reservoir management requirements (for example
limiting the producing gas oil ratio during production).
A simple pressure and flowrate plot versus time would resemble figure 15
The well has been brought onto production at an initial flowrate, q 1.
The bottomhole flowing pressure has dropped through time (as described by
the appropriate boundary conditions and the flow regime) until at time t 1, the
flowrate has been increased to q2 and this change from q1 to q2 has altered the
bottomhole flowing pressure (again as described by the boundary conditions
and the flow regime).
The total (i.e. the real bottomhole flowing pressure) is calculated by summing
the pressure drops caused by the flowrate q 1 bringing the well on production,
plus the pressure drop created by the flowrate change q 2 - q1 for any time after
t1.
During the first period (q1) the pressure drop at a time, t, is described by
q1
P(t) = Pi - Pwf = PD(t)
2kh
where PD(t) is the dimensionless pressure drop at the well for the applicable
boundary condition.
For times greater than t1, the pressure drop is described by
q1 (q2 - q1)

P(t) = PD(t) + PD(t - t1) (5.3)
2kh 2kh
In this case, the pressure drop is that caused by the rate q 1 over the duration t, plus
the pressure drop caused by the flowrate change q 2 - q1 over the duration t - t1.
In fact, the pressure perturbation caused by q 1 still exists in the reservoir and is still
causing an effect at the wellbore.
On top of that, the next perturbation caused by flowrate change q 2 - q1 is added or

superposed to give the total pressure drop (at the wellbore in this case).
In mathematical terms:
q1
0 ≤ t ≤ t1 : P(t) = PD(t) (5.4)
2kh
q1 (q2 - q1)

t > t1 P(t) = PD(t) + PD(t - t1) (5.5)
2kh 2kh
In the 2nd equation, the first term is P from flow at q1 :
2nd term is the incremental term P caused by increasing rate by an

increment (q2-q1).
These expressions are valid regardless of whether q2 is larger or

smaller than q1 so that even if the well is shut in, the effects of the
previous flowrate history are still valid.
The dimensionless pressure drop function depends as mentioned on
the flow regime and boundaries. If unsteady state is assumed and
the line source solution applied, then
Pi - Pwf 1 -crw2
PD = = - Ei ( ) (5.6)
q/2kh 2 4kt
and the equation for time, t less than or equal to t1 would be

as expected
q 1 -cr w2
P(t) = - Ei ( ). (5.7)
4kh 4kt
For times greater than t1 the additional pressure drop is
added to give
q 1 -cr w2 (q2 - q1) -cr w2

P(t) = - Ei ( ) - Ei ( ) (5.8)
4kh 4kt 4kh 4k(t-t1)
This approach can be extended to many flowrate changes as illustrated in figure 16.
This leads to a general equation
q1  (q  q 1 ) (q  q 2 )
P(t)  PD (t)  2 PD (t  t 1 )  3 PD (t  t 2 )  ...
2 kh 2kh 2kh
(q  qn 1 ) 
 n PD (t  t n 1 ) (5.9)
2 kh
or
q1   n
q i  q i 1 
P(t)  P

2 kh  D
(t)   q PD
(t  t )
i 1 

(5.10)
i 2 1
This is the general form of the principle of superposition for

multi rate history wells. For the specific case where the well
is shut in and the pressure builds up, an additional term is
added to reflect this.
Assuming that the well was shut in during the nth flowrate
period, the pressure builds during the shut in time  t (i.e.
 t starts from the instant the well is shut in) back up
towards the initial reservoir pressure according to
q1   n
q i  q i1  q n-1 
Pi  Pws  P (t)   PD (t n-1  t i 1 + t) PD (t)
2 kh  D 12 q 1  2 kh
( 5.11) where
P is the shut in bottomhole pressure
ws
t is the total producing time before shut in
n-1
 t is the closed in time from the instant of shut in.
Effects of Rate Changes
Illustration of problem as follows:

Well brought onto production at q 1 until time t1 then flowrate increased to q2
q2 continues till t2, flowrate increased to q3.
Assume reservoir in unsteady state and line source applicable

Seeking Pwf, skin may be present
Each flowrate change produces a pressure perturbation that moves into formation
Figure illustrates:
The pressure drop produced by bringing the well onto production is calculated by
the logarithmic approximation of the Ei function (it is assumed that the checks
have been made to the applicability of the Ei function and its logarithmic
approximation).
 q1    crw2  
P1  Pi  Pwf 1  ln    2s
4kh   4kt  
The next pressure drop is that produced by the flowrate change q 2 - q1

at time, t1.
It is still the bottomhole flowing pressure that is to be determined,

therefore any skin zone will still exist and still need to be accounted
for. The second pressure drop is:
(q 2 - q1 )   crw2  
P2  Pi  Pwf 2  ln    2s
4kh  4k(t - t1 ) 
And finally the third pressure drop is:
(q3 - q 2 )   crw2  
P3  Pi  Pwf 3  ln   2s
4kh  4k(t - t 2 ) 
The total pressure drop at the wellbore caused by all of

the flowrate changes is

(Pi - Pwf )= P1 + P2 + P3
Example 8. A well is completed in an undeveloped reservoir described by the data
below. The well flows for 6 days at 60 stm 3/day and is then shut in for a day. Calculate
the pressure in an observation well 100m from the flowing well.

Data

porosity, , 19%
compressibility, c 3 x10-9Pa-1
wellbore radius, rw (both wells) 0.15m
flowrate (constant) 60stm3/day
skin factor around well 0

The observation well is 100m from the flowing well.
Solution

The line source solution is used to determine the pressure in the observation
well after 6 days production from the flowing well then 1 day shut in at the
flowing well. Checks are made to ensure that:

i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line
source solution to be accurate

A Check Ei applicability

line source not accurate until
100crw2
t
k
-3 9 2
100x0.19x0.4x10 x3x10 x0.15
t -15
50x10
t >10.3s
time is 6 days, therefore line source is applicable.

the reservoir is infinite acting if the time,
cre2
t
4k
i.e.
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x109 x6000 2

t
4x50x10-15
t < 41040000s
t <475 days

The pressure drop at the observation well is described by

B o   cr 2   cr 2 
Pi  Pobs well   q1Ei    (q 2  q1 )Ei  
4kh   4kt   4k(t  t1 ) 
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation,

the ln approximation is valid if the time,
25cr
2
t
k
25x0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x109 x1002

t -15
50x10
t > 1140000s
t > 13 days

therefore ln approximation is not valid.
Bo 0.4x10 3 x1.3
   = -35982857
4kh 4x50x10 15 x23
 
cr1-2 2 0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x100 2
 = 0.019
4kt 4x50x10-15 x7x24x3600
 
cr1-22 0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x1002
 = 0.132
4k(t - t1 ) 4x50x10-15 x(7 - 6)x24x3600
Ei(-0.019) = -3.405
Ei(-0.132) = -1.576
 60 0 - 60 
Pi  Pobs well  35982857 x  3.405  x  1.576
24x3600 24x3600 
Pi  Pobs well  359828572.36x10 3  1.09x10 3 

 
Pi - Pobs well = 45698Pa = 0.5bar

Pobs well = 180.0 - 0.5 = 179.5bar
Simulating Boundary Effects
One of the intriguing possibilities of the application of the principle of

superposition to reservoir flow is in simulating reservoir boundaries.
It is clear that when a well in a reservoir starts production, there will be a period
where the flow regime is unsteady while the reservoir fluid reacts to the pressure
perturbation as if the volume of the reservoir was infinite (i.e. an infinite acting
reservoir).
Once the boundaries are detected, there is a definite limit to the volume of fluid
available and the pressure response changes to match that of, for example, semi
steady state or steady state flow. This assumes that the pressure perturbation
reaches the areal boundary at the same time, i.e. if the well was in the centre of
a circular reservoir, the pressure perturbation would reach the external radius at
all points around the circumference at the same time (assuming homogeneous
conditions).
If the well was not at the centre then some parts of the boundary would be
detected before all of the boundary was detected. This means that some of the
reservoir fluid is still in unsteady flow whilst other parts are changing to a
different flow regime.
This would appear to render the use of the line source solution invalid, however,
the effect of the nearest boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir has
the same effect as the interaction of the pressure perturbations of two wells next
to each other in an infinite acting reservoir.
So if an imaginary well is placed at a distance from the real well equal to twice
the distance to the boundary, and the flowrate histories are identical, then the
principle of superposition can be used to couple the effect of the imaginary well
to the real well in order to calculate the real well’s bottomhole flowing pressure.
Figure 18 illustrates the problem and the effect of superposition. Figure 19
shows a simplification of the model.
This shows a plane-fault boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir, as in
the top figure . To determine the pressure response in the well, the line source
solution can be used until the pressure perturbation hits the fault. Thereafter
there are no solutions for this complex geometry. However, the reservoir can be
modelled with an infinite acting solution if a combination of wells in an infinite-
acting system that limit the drainage or flow around the boundary is found.
The bottom of figure 18 indicates 1 image well with the same production rate as
the actual well is positioned such that the distance between it and the actual well
is twice the distance to the fault of the actual well. No flow occurs across the
plane midway between the two wells in the infinite-acting system, and the flow
configuration in the drainage area of each well is the same as the flow
configuration for the actual well.
Pressure communication crosses the drainage boundary, but there is no fluid

movement across it and the problem of the flow regime has been resolved: the
real well can be thought of as reacting to the flowrate in it and to the pressure
drop produced by the imaginary well on the opposite side of the fault.
The pressure drop is therefore:
q  crw2  q c(2L) 2 
Pi  Pwf   ln( )  2s Ei 
4kh  4kt  4kh  4kt 
where the symbols have their usual meaning, and L is the distance from the real
well to the fault. The skin factor is used in the actual well, but not in the other
(image) well since it is the influence of this image well at a distance 2L from it
that is of interest.
Example 9. A well in a reservoir is produced at 120 stm 3 /day for 50 days. It is 300m
from a fault. Using the data given, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure in the well
and determine the effect of the fault on the bottomhole flowing pressure.
Data
porosity, , 19%
compressibility, c 9 x10-9Pa-1
flowrate (constant) 120stm3/day
flowrate period, t 50days
distance to fault, L 300m
skin factor around well 0
S o lu tio n
T h e lin e s o u rc e s o lu tio n w ill b e u s e d to a s s e s s th e e ffe c ts o f th e ra te a n d th e b o u n d a ry o n

th e b o tto m h o le flo w in g p r e s s u re . U s in g a n im a g e w e ll 6 0 0 m fro m th e re a l w e ll (i.e . 2 x
d is ta n c e to th e fa u lt) w ith id e n tic a l p re s s u re a n d ra te h is to ry a s th e re a l w e ll, th e e ffe c t o f
th e b o u n d a ry o n th e in fin ite a c tin g re s e rv o ir c a n b e o v e rc o m e . T h e b o tto m h o le flo w in g
p re s s u re in th e re a l w e ll w ill b e th e p re s s u re d ro p c a u s e d b y th e p ro d u c tio n fro m th e re a l
w e ll p lu s a p re s s u re d ro p fro m th e im a g e w e ll 6 0 0 m a w a y .
T h e lin e s o u rc e s o lu tio n w ill b e u s e d . C h e c k s a re m a d e to e n s u re th a t:
i) th e re h a s b e e n a d e q u a te tim e s in c e th e s ta rt o f p ro d u c tio n to a llo w th e lin e s o u rc e

s o lu tio n to b e a c c u ra te
ii) th e re s e rv o ir is in fin ite a c tin g .
A C h e c k E i a p p lic a b ility
lin e s o u rc e n o t a c c u ra te u n til
1 0 0   c r w2
t 
k
1 0 0 x 0 .1 9 x 1 x 1 0 -3 x 9 x 1 0  9 x 0 .1 5 2
t 
1 2 0 x 1 0 -15
t > 32 s
tim e is 5 0 d a y s , th e re fo re lin e s o u rc e is a p p lic a b le .
cre2
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t 
4k
0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x4000 2

t
4x120x10 -15
t < 57000000s
t <660 days
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the real well
the ln approximation is valid if the time, 25cr 2

t
k
25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.15 2

t
120x10 -15
t > 8s
therefore ln approximation is valid.

Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the image well
25c(2L) 2
the ln approximation is valid if the time, t
k
25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2
t
120x10 -15
t > 128250000s
t> 1484 days
therefore ln approximation is not valid.
For this case, then, the ln approximation will predict the bottomhole flowing pressure
around the real well, but the effect of the image well 600m away will need to be predicted
by the Ei function.
qB o  2 
 crw qBo   c(2L) 2 
Pi  Pwf  ln   Ei 

 
4kh  4kt  4kh  4kt  
qBo 120x1x10 3 x1.4

  = -64473
4kh 24x3600x4x120x10 15 x20
cr
2
1.781x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.15 2
w
 = 33.1x10-9
4kt 4x120x10 -15 x50x24x3600
c(2L) 2 0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2

 -15
= 0.297
4kt 4x120x10 x50x24x3600
Ei(-0.297) = -0.914
Pi  Pwf  64473x ln(33.1x10 )  64473x  0.914

-9
Pi - Pwf = 1110466 + 58928 =1169394Pa = 11.7bar

Pwf = 300.0 - 11.7 = 288.3bar
The fault 300m away pulled the bottomhole flowing pressure down by an extra 58928Pa
or 0.6bar.
There are other examples of the use of image wells to mimic the effect of
boundaries on flow. The larger networks require computer solution to relieve the
tedium. To complicate the simple fault boundary described earlier, consider the
effect of a well near the corner of a rectangular boundary. In this case, there are
more image wells required to balance the flow from the real well. Figure 20
shows the boundary and the image wells.
Four pressure drop terms are required to determine the pressure at the actual
well. The total pressure drop then is the sum of the pressure drops caused by all
of the wells at the actual well.
Pi - Pwf = (P)rw + (P)2L1 + (P)2L2 + (P)r3
(Pi-Pwf)Total at the actual well = (Pi -P)at the actual wellbore radius, rw
+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 1 at distance 2L1
+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 2 at distance 2L2
+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 3 at distance R3
The number and position of image wells can become complex.

In the apparently simple geometry of an actual well surrounded by two
equidistant barriers, such as illustrated in figure 21, the flow can be balanced as
before by defining image well, i1 on the right.
On the left side, the barrier is balanced by image wells i2 and i3 (because seen
from i2, there is a barrier with 2 wells on the other side - a real well and an
image well). Now there is an imbalance in production across the right barrier, so
image wells i4 and i5 are added.
This unbalances the left barrier and image wells i6 and i7 are added. This should
continue to infinity, however, since the line source solution is known to have
little influence above a certain distance from the actual well, the number of
image wells used can be fixed with no error in the approximation.
Even more complex patterns can be devised. Mathews, Brons and Hazebroek
(Matthews, CS, Brons, F and Hazebroek, P, A Method for the Determination of
Average Pressure in a Bounded reservoir. Trans. AIME.201) studied the pressure
behaviour of wells completely surrounded by boundaries in rectangular shaped
reservoirs.
Figure 22 shows the network of wells set up to mimic the effect of the
boundaries.
Summary
The basic partial differential equation expressing the nature of fluid flow in a
porous rock has been illustrated in the context of petroleum reservoirs.
Only oil and water have been used as the simplifications for solving the diffusivity
equation have required the compressibility of the fluid to be small and constant.
This is the reason that the compressibility of the fluid in the examples has not
changed with pressure as would be expected. So, for instance, the same value of
compressibility is used for the fluid at the wellbore which may be under a lower
pressure than the same fluid at, for example, the external radius of the reservoir.
In gasses, the same diffusion process occurs, but the pressure dependence of
the gas is accommodated by various mathematical devices which again lead to
simple working solutions.
The assumptions made concerning the geological structure and the petrophysical
properties of the rock may appear radical: to assume a reservoir is circular,
horizontal and has identical permeability in all directions is a great simplification
of the problem. Yet these simple analytical solutions allow an appreciation of the
role of the fluids and the rock in a producing reservoir.
For more realistic treatments of real reservoirs, approximations to the diffusivity

equation are made from which simple algebraic relationships can be formed. This
process is encapsulated in reservoir simulation where the reservoir (with its
properties) is subdivided into small blocks within which the flow equations have
been approximated by simple relationships.
These can then be solved by a process of iteration to achieve an acceptable

result. The great potential of this process is the ability to represent the shape of
the reservoir and the changing properties, vertically and horizontally, throughout
the reservoir.
Figure 23 summarises the route taken through the analytical solutions for radial
flow regimes examined in this chapter. The number of solutions is
mathematically infinite; only a few are suitable for real reservoir problems.
PD versus tD - infinite radial system,
constant rate at inner boundary
PD versus tD -
finite radial
system with
closed exterior
boundary,
constant rate at
inner boundary
PD versus tD -
finite radial
system with
closed exterior
boundary,
constant rate at
inner boundary
Values of Exponential Integral,
-Ei(-x)
Dietz shape factors for single well drainage
areas

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Fluid Flow in Porous Media

•Understand forces responsible for driving fluid

•Be aware of models available to represent reservoir

•Assess flow properties of reservoir

•Introduce concepts used in welltesting

Two methods to represent fluid flow:

• analytical solutions to diffusivity equation

•Similar in concept to flow in pipes

•General energy equation not applicable because of

•Dimensions give rise to scaling problem – capillary

•Main effect is time taken for fluid to move from high

•If similar to large body of water, then pressure same

•If rapid equilibration, then Darcys Law would be

•Illustrated with model:

–10 tubes representing section of reservoir from

–Initially no flow and all tubes at same height

–Flow initiated and fluid expands

–Pressure profile develops as fluid expansion migrates

•Illustrated with model:

–Unusual situation where although hydraulically

–Time taken for pressure wave to move along tubes

–Restrictions at base of tubes limits flow and mimics

Pressure profile develops through model until the back

If fluid entered the system at the back end of the

In this case the pressure in the model declines once

A major feature of this system is the appreciable time

This time dependence may be significant in real

• drainage area of well subdivided into small

• single block which preserves global features

Linear and radial of most use

Assume oil system with cp<<1, i.e. small and constant

If gas reservoir, compressibility must be accounted for

k = permeability (m2) in the direction of X, Y, Z. The Z direction has an

x=0 x x+dx x=L

Flow into cuboid at left, out of cuboid at right

Rock 100% saturated with one fluid

U = flow velocity (m/s)

Element from x to position x+dx is examined.

The bulk volume of the element is the product of the

The pore volume of element is product of the bulk

If flow steady state then the flowrates into and out of

fluid is accumulating in the element and qin > qout

fluid is depleting from the element qout > qin

(which is possible in a pressurised system since the

Mass flow rate through the area, A = q

Rate of change of mass equal to   A  dx

Substitution of parameters gives

Partial differential equation for linear flow of any single

•In core relates pressure distribution along core during

•In linear reservoir where aquifer flows into reservoir

But, non-linear because of pressure dependence of

Using equation 2.4 and since

the above becomes

Radial model for cylindrical

The mass balance gives:

Eliminating U and q through equations gives the non linear equation:

Making assumptions as for linear flow, linearises the equation to: