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EBVF4103 (Chapter 4) Fluid Mechanics For Civil Engineering
EBVF4103 (Chapter 4) Fluid Mechanics For Civil Engineering
Technical Studies
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 4
Introduction
Objectives
4.1 Application of Bernoulli Equation
4.1.1 Pitot Tube
4.1.2 Pitot Static Tube
4.1.3 Venturi Meter
4.1.4 Sharp Edge Circular Orifice
4.1.5 Nozzles
4.1.6 Flow over Notches and Weirs
Summary
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Introduction
• The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many
situations not just the pipe flow we have been considering up
to now.
• In the following sections we will see some examples of its
application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as
well as in open channels.
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Objectives
• Acknowledge practical uses of the Bernoulli and momentum
equation in the analysis of flow
• Understand how the momentum equation and principle of
conservation of momentum is used to predict forces induced
by flowing fluids
• Apply Bernoulli and Momentum Equations to solve fluid
mechanics problems
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the
pipe can be used in an arrangement shown below to measure
velocity of flow.
From the expressions above,
1 2
p 2 p1 V1
2
1 2
gh2 gh1 V1
2
V 2 g h2 h1
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
2 gh( max )
V1
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Applying Bernoulli Equation between (1) and (2), and using continuity equation
to eliminate V2 will give :
(4.4) p p
2g
Z Z 1 2
g
1 2
V1
2
A1
1
and Qideal = V1A1 A2
To get the actual discharge, taking into consideration of losses due to friction,
a coefficient of discharge, Cd, is introduced.
Qactual = Cd Qideal = p p2
2 g 1
Z1 Z 2 (4.5)
g
Cd A1 2
A1
1
It can be shown that the discharge can also be expressed in terms of
A2
manometer reading :
Q actual = (4.6)
2 gh man 1
C d A1
2
A1
1
where man = density of manometer fluid A2
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Example 4.1
A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3 m
and a throat diameter of 0.2 m is used to measure the
volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The discharge
coefficient of the meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific
weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m3,
calculate the volume flowing when the pressure
difference between the entrance and the throat is
measured as 0.06 m on a water U-tube manometer.
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Calculate Q:
V1 = Q/0.0707 V2 = Q/0.0314
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
2
Q C d Qideal 0.96 0.85 0.816 m 3 / s
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
h
streamline
(2)
datum
Q A0 2 gh
For the flow of a real fluid, the velocity is less than that given by
eq. 4.7 because of frictional effects and so the actual velocity V2a, is
obtained by introducing a modifying coefficient, Cv, the coefficient
of velocity:
Velocity,
V2 a Cv 2 gh (4.8)
or
actual velocity
Cv (typically about 0.97)
theoretical velocity
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Vena contracta
d0
P = Patm
approx.
d0/2
The area of discharge is thus less than the orifice area and a
coefficient of contraction, Cc, must be introduced.
area of jet at vena contracta
Cc
area of orifice
Hence the actual discharge is :
Qa C d A0 2 gh (4.9)
Cd = Cc . Cv (4.10)
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
4.1.5 Nozzles
dnozzle
contraction
within nozzle
Figure 4.9: Contraction within a nozzle
In a nozzle, the flow contracts gradually to the outlet and hence the area
of the jet is equal to the outlet area of the nozzle.
i.e. Cc = 1.0
therefore Cd = Cv
Taking a datum at the nozzle, Torricelli’s equation gives the total energy
head in the system as it assumes an ideal fluid and hence no loss of
energy, i.e. theoretical head :
2
V2
ht (4.11)
2g
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
theoretical actual
2
V 2
2 (1 C v )
2g
hf (1 Cv ) ht
2 (4.13)
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Weir Assumptions
assume that the velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is
small so that kinetic energy can be neglected.
assume that the velocity through any elemental strip
depends only on the depth below the free surface.
These are acceptable assumptions for tanks with notches or
reservoirs with weirs, but for flows where the velocity
approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must
be taken into account (e.g. a fast moving river).
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Integrating from the free surface, h = 0, to the weir crest, h = H gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge,
H
Qtheoretical = 2 g bh 2 dh
1
0 25
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Rectangular Weir
For a rectangular weir the width does not
change with depth so there is no relationship
between b and depth h. We have the
equation, b = constant = B.
Substituting this with the general weir
equation gives:
H
Qtheoretical B 2 g h 2 dh
1
Figure 4.11 :
O
A rectangular weir
2 3
(4.14)
B 2g H 2
3
To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge,
Cd, which accounts for losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in
the area of flow, giving :
2 3
Qactual C d B 2g H 2 (4.15)
3
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Example 4.2
Water flows over a sharp-crested weir 600 mm wide. The measured head
(relative to the crest) is 155 mm at a point where the cross-sectional area
of the stream is 0.26 m2. Calculate the discharge, assuming that Cd = 0.61.
H = 155 mm
Cross sectional
Area = 0.26 m2
As first approximation,
2
Qactual C d
3
B 2g H 2
3
2
0.61 0.6 m 19.62 m / s 2 (0.155 m) 2
3
3
= 0.0660 m3/s
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
0.0660 m 3 / s
Velocity of approach =
0.26 m 2
= 0.254 m/s
V 2 (0.254 m / s ) 2
2
3.28 10 3 m
2 g 19.62 m / s
H + V12/2g = (0.155 + 0.00328) m = 0.1583 m
2
0.61 19.62 x0.6 0.1583 m 3 / s 0.0681m 3 / s
3/ 2
Second approximation:
3
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Summary
• Chapter 4 emphasized basically on the application of
Bernoulli equation in order to solve problems related
to fluid mechanics and the application of momentum
equation to solve type of flows problem.
• Students should concentrate more on the examples
given in chapter 4 and try to relate the concept in the
real scenario.
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Thank You
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Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM) Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia