MATERIAL SCIENCE

MODULE IV
FATIGUE AND CREEP

CHAPTER II - CREEP
 INTRODUCTION
Failure of a material component is the loss of ability to function normally or
to perform the intended job.
Three general ways failure:
▪ Excessive elastic deformation, E.g.: buckling. Controlled by design and
elastic modulus of the material.
▪ Excessive plastic deformation, Controlled by yield strength of the material.
E.g.: loss of shape, creep and/ or stress rupture at elevated temperatures.
▪ Fracture, involves complete disruption of continuity of a component –
under static load: brittle or ductile, under fluctuating/cyclic load: fatigue,
mode in which most machine parts fail in service.

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 Fracture
▪ Fracture is considered as end result of plastic deformation process.
▪ It is separation of body under stress into two or more parts.
▪ Separation is caused by physical or chemical forces.
Process of Fracture
▪ Crack initiation
▪ Crack propagation
Types of Fracture
▪ Ductile Fracture
▪ Brittle Fracture

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 Ductile Fracture

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Ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic deformation.

It is usually preceded by necking.

It exhibits three stages –

(1) formation of cavities / neck formation under tensile loads.
(2) growth of cavities
(3) final failure involving rapid crack propagation at about 45º to the tensile axis.
(crack grows perpendicular to axis of specimen; then it propagates along localized
shear plane roughly at 45º).

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 Brittle fracture / Cleavage Fracture

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Brittle fracture in takes place with little or no preceding plastic deformation.
▪ It occurs, often at unpredictable levels of stress, by rapid crack propagation.
▪ Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of applied tensile stress,
and hence called cleavage fracture.
▪ Most often brittle fracture occurs through grains i.e. transgranular.
▪ Three stages of brittle fracture-
(1) plastic deformation that causes dislocation pile-ups at obstacles,
(2)micro-crack nucleation as a result of build-up of shear stresses,
(3)eventual crack propagation under applied stress aided by stored elastic energy.

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 CREEP

▪ Under many service conditions, materials are required to sustain steady loads for long period of
time and under different temperature conditions for ex- blades of turbine rotor, filaments in vaccum
tube, furnance parts, etc.
▪ Under these conditions material may continue to deform until its usefulness is seriously impaired.
Such time dependent deformation can grow large and result in fracture of member without any
increase in load.
▪ This time- dependent deformation under a certain applied load is called Creep.
▪ Creep may be defined as process by which plastic flow occurs when a constant stress is applied to a
metal for prolonged period of time.
▪ Generally occurs at high temperature (thermal creep), but can also happen at room temperature in
certain materials (e.g. lead or glass), though much slower.
▪ Creep can take place and lead to fracture at static stresses much smaller than those which will break
the specimen when loaded quickly.

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▪ Though mostly due to the reduced yield strength at higher temperatures, the collapse of the World
Trade Center was due in part to creep from increased temperature operation.
▪ In steam turbine power plants, pipes carry steam at high temperatures (566 °C (1,051 °F)) and
pressures (above 24.1 MPa or 3500 psi). In jet engines, temperatures can reach up to 1,400 °C
(2,550 °F) and initiate creep deformation in even advanced-design coated turbine blades. Hence, it is
crucial for correct functionality to understand the creep deformation behavior of materials.
▪ Creep deformation is important not only in systems where high temperatures are endured such
as nuclear power plants, jet engines and heat exchangers, but also in the design of many everyday
objects. For example, metal paper clips are stronger than plastic ones because plastics creep at room
temperatures.
▪ Creep is dangerous as an unanticipated failure could prove fatal.
▪ Typical creep rate: Jet engine: 1% in 10,000 hours.

Steam generator: 1% at 100,000 hours.

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 Creep Curve
• In a typical creep test the load and temperature are kept constant and the elongation is monitored
with time. The strain (typically engineering strain) computed from the elongation is plotted as
function of time. The loads employed are typically below the elastic limit.

• The rate of deformation is called the creep rate. It is the slope of the line in a Creep Strain vs. Time
curve.

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a. Primary Creep:
Primary or transient creep is a decreasing creep rate because of the work hardening process resulting
from deformation. The primary creep is similar to delayed elasticity and as such is recoverable by
unloading the specimen.
Effect of work hardening more than recovery.
b. Secondary or Steady State Creep:
Deformation continues at an approximately constant rate.
Work hardening is balanced by recovery.
Essentially plastic or viscous depending upon stress and temperature.
c. Tertiary Creep:
Necking of specimen starts in this stage.
Specimen failure processes set in.

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 Effect of Temperature & Stress

On increasing the load: (i) the instantaneous

strain (elastic) increases, (ii) for a given time
(say t1) the strain is more, (iii) the time to
failure (tf) decreases (i.e. as expected,
specimens fail earlier).

On increasing the temperature:

(i) the instantaneous strain (elastic = 0)
increases, (ii) for a given time (say t1) the
strain is more, (iii) the time to failure (tf)
decreases.

The instantaneous strain 0 increases with

increasing T because of the slight decrease in
the Young’s modulus (E) of the material.
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 Creep Resisting Material

Creep resistant materials avoid the tendency to move or deform permanently under the influence
of stress.  Creep takes place over time and results from long-term exposure to stress levels below a
material’s yield strength. Creep is more severe in materials subjected to heat for long periods at
levels close to the materials melting point. For example, a turbine blade made of a non-creep
resistant material and used in a high temperature environment, may creep over time.

Creep resistant materials play a critical role in many applications including: jet engines, heat
exchangers, nuclear power plants, kilns
Component failure is often the result of creep.  Other everyday creep resistant material
applications include the use of these materials in the production of spark plugs.
Commonly used materials → Fe, Ni (including superalloys), Co base alloys.

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