Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body

Temperature Regulation
Nutrition

 Nutrient – a substance that promotes normal

growth, maintenance, and repair

 Major nutrients – carbohydrates, lipids, and

proteins

 Other nutrients – vitamins and minerals (and

technically speaking, water)

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Nutrition
Carbohydrates

 Complex carbohydrates (starches) are found in

bread, cereal, flour, pasta, nuts, and potatoes

 Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are found in soft

drinks, candy, fruit, and ice cream

 Glucose is the molecule ultimately used by body

cells to make ATP

 Neurons and RBCs rely almost entirely upon glucose

to supply their energy needs

 Excess glucose is converted to glycogen or fat and

stored
Carbohydrates

 The minimum amount of carbohydrates needed to

maintain adequate blood glucose levels is 100
grams per day

 Starchy foods and milk have nutrients such as

vitamins and minerals in addition to complex
carbohydrates

 Refined carbohydrate foods (candy and soft drinks)

provide energy sources only and are referred to as
“empty calories”
Lipids
 The most abundant dietary lipids, triglycerides, are
found in both animal and plant foods

 Essential fatty acids – linoleic and linolenic acid,

found in most vegetables, must be ingested

 Dietary fats:
 Help the body to absorb vitamins
 Are a major energy fuel of hepatocytes and
skeletal muscle
 Are a component of myelin sheaths and all cell
membranes
Lipids

 Fatty deposits in adipose tissue provides

 A protective cushion around body organs

 An insulating layer beneath the skin

 An easy-to-store concentrated source of energy

Lipids

 Prostaglandins function in:

 Smooth muscle contraction

 Control of blood pressure

 Inflammation

 Cholesterol stabilizes membranes and is a precursor

of bile salts and steroid hormones
Lipids: Dietary Requirements
 Higher for infants and children than for adults

 The American Heart Association suggests that:

 Fats should represent less than 30% of one’s total

caloric intake

 Saturated fats should be limited to 10% or less of

one’s total fat intake

 Daily cholesterol intake should not exceed 200

mg
Proteins

 Complete proteins that meet all the body’s amino

acid needs are found in eggs, milk, milk products,
meat, and fish

 Incomplete proteins are found in legumes, nuts,

seeds, grains, and vegetables
Proteins

 Proteins supply:

 Essential amino acids, the building blocks for

nonessential amino acids

 Nitrogen for non-protein nitrogen-containing

substances

 Daily intake should be approximately 0.8g/kg of

body weight

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Proteins: Synthesis and
Hydrolysis
 All-or-none rule

 All amino acids needed must be present at the

same time for protein synthesis to occur

 Adequacy of caloric intake

 Protein will be used as fuel if there is

insufficient carbohydrate or fat available

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Proteins: Synthesis and
Hydrolysis
 Nitrogen balance

 The rate of protein synthesis equals the rate of

breakdown and loss

 Positive – synthesis exceeds breakdown (normal in

children and tissue repair)

 Negative – breakdown exceeds synthesis (e.g., stress,

burns, infection, or injury)

 Hormonal control
 Anabolic hormones accelerate protein synthesis
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Vitamins
 Organic compounds needed for growth and good
health

 They are crucial in helping the body use nutrients

and often function as coenzymes

 Only vitamins D, K, and B are synthesized in the

body; all others must be ingested

 Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex and C) are

absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract

 B12 additionally requires gastric intrinsic factor to

be absorbed
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Vitamins

 Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) bind to

ingested lipids and are absorbed with their digestion
products

 Vitamins A, C, and E also act in an antioxidant

cascade

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Minerals
 Seven minerals are required in moderate amounts

 Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium,

chloride, and magnesium

 Dozens are required in trace amounts

 Minerals work with nutrients to ensure proper body

functioning

 Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium salts harden

bone

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Minerals

 Sodium and chloride help maintain normal

osmolarity, water balance, and are essential in
nerve and muscle function

 Uptake and excretion must be balanced to prevent

toxic overload

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Metabolism
 Metabolism – all chemical reactions necessary to
maintain life

 Cellular respiration – food fuels are broken down

within cells and some of the energy is captured to
produce ATP

 Anabolic reactions – synthesis of larger molecules

from smaller ones

 Catabolic reactions – hydrolysis of complex

structures into simpler ones

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Metabolism

 Enzymes shift the high-energy phosphate groups of

ATP to other molecules

 These phosphorylated molecules are activated to

perform cellular functions

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Stages of Metabolism
 Energy-containing nutrients are processed in three major stages

 Digestion – breakdown of food; nutrients are transported to

tissues

 Anabolism and formation of catabolic intermediates where

nutrients are:

 Built into lipids, proteins, and glycogen

 Broken down by catabolic pathways to pyruvic acid and

acetyl CoA

 Oxidative breakdown – nutrients are catabolized to carbon

dioxide, water, and ATP

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Stages of Metabolism

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Figure 24.3
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)
Reactions
 Oxidation occurs via the gain of oxygen or the loss of
hydrogen

 Whenever one substance is oxidized, another substance is

reduced

 Oxidized substances lose energy

 Reduced substances gain energy

 Coenzymes act as hydrogen (or electron) acceptors

 Two important coenzymes are nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

 High-energy phosphate
groups are transferred
directly from
phosphorylated substrates
to ADP

 ATP is synthesized via

substrate-level
phosphorylation in
glycolysis and the Krebs
cycle

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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:
Oxidative Phosphorylation

 Uses the chemiosmotic process whereby the

movement of substances across a membrane is
coupled to chemical reactions

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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:
Oxidative Phosphorylation

 Is carried out by the electron transport proteins in the cristae of the

mitochondria

 Nutrient energy is used to pump hydrogen ions into the

intermembrane space

 A steep diffusion gradient across the membrane results

 When hydrogen ions flow back across the membrane through ATP
synthase, energy is captured and attaches phosphate groups to
ADP (to make ATP)
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Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis:
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Carbohydrate Metabolism
 Since all carbohydrates are transformed into glucose, it is
essentially glucose metabolism

 Oxidation of glucose is shown by the overall reaction:

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO2 + 36 ATP + heat

 Glucose is catabolized in three pathways:

 Glycolysis

 Krebs cycle

 The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

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Carbohydrate Catabolism

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Glycolysis
 A three-phase pathway in which:

 Glucose is oxidized into pyruvic acid

 NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+

 ATP is synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation

 Pyruvic acid:

 Moves on to the Krebs cycle in an aerobic pathway

 Is reduced to lactic acid in an anaerobic environment

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Glycolysis

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Glycolysis: Phase 1 and 2

 Phase 1: Sugar activation

 Two ATP molecules activate glucose into

fructose-1,6-diphosphate

 Phase 2: Sugar cleavage

 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two

3-carbon isomers

 Bishydroxyacetone phosphate

 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
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Glycolysis: Phase 3
 Phase 3: Oxidation and ATP formation

 The 3-carbon sugars are oxidized (reducing NAD+)

 Inorganic phosphate groups (Pi) are attached to

each oxidized fragment

 The terminal phosphates are cleaved and

captured by ADP to form four ATP molecules

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Glycolysis: Phase 3

 The final products are:

 Two pyruvic acid molecules

 Two NADH + H+ molecules (reduced NAD+)

 A net gain of two ATP molecules

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Electron Transport Chain
 Food (glucose) is oxidized and the released hydrogen:

 Are transported by coenzymes NADH and FADH2

 Enter a chain of proteins bound to metal atoms

(cofactors)

 Combine with molecular oxygen to form water

 Release energy

 The energy released is harnessed to attach inorganic

phosphate groups (Pi) to ADP, making ATP by oxidative
phosphorylation
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Mechanism of Oxidative
Phosphorylation
 The hydrogen delivered to the chain are split into protons
(H+) and electrons
 The protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial
membrane by:

 NADH dehydrogenase (FMN, Fe-S)

 Cytochrome b-c1

 Cytochrome oxidase (a-a3)

 The electrons are shuttled from one acceptor to the next

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Mechanism of Oxidative
Phosphorylation
 Electrons are delivered to oxygen, forming oxygen ions

 Oxygen ions attract H+ to form water

 H+ pumped to the intermembrane space:

 Diffuses back to the matrix via ATP synthase

 Releases energy to make ATP

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Mechanism of Oxidative
Phosphorylation
ATP Synthase

 The enzyme consists of three parts: a rotor, a

knob, and a rod

 Current created by H+ causes the rotor and rod to

rotate

 This rotation activates catalytic sites in the knob

where ADP and Pi are combined to make ATP

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Structure of ATP Synthase

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Summary of ATP Production

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Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
 Glycogenesis – formation of
glycogen when glucose
supplies exceed cellular
need for ATP synthesis

 Glycogenolysis – breakdown
of glycogen in response to
low blood glucose

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Gluconeogenesis
 The process of forming sugar from non-carbohydrate
molecules

 Takes place mainly in the liver

 Protects the body, especially the brain, from the

damaging effects of hypoglycemia by ensuring ATP
synthesis can continue

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Lipid Metabolism
 Most products of fat metabolism are transported in
lymph as chylomicrons

 Lipids in chylomicrons are hydrolyzed by plasma

enzymes and absorbed by cells

 Only neutral fats are routinely oxidized for energy

 Catabolism of fats involves two separate pathways

 Glycerol pathway

 Fatty acids pathway

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Lipid Metabolism
 Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate

 Glyceraldehyde is ultimately converted into acetyl CoA

 Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle

 Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation which produces:

 Two-carbon acetic acid fragments, which enter the Krebs cycle

 Reduced coenzymes, which enter the electron transport chain

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Lipid Metabolism

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Lipogenesis and Lipolysis
 Excess dietary glycerol and fatty acids undergo lipogenesis to form
triglycerides

 Glucose is easily converted into fat since acetyl CoA is:

 An intermediate in glucose catabolism

 The starting molecule for the synthesis of fatty acids

Lipogenesis and Lipolysis

 Lipolysis, the breakdown of stored fat, is essentially

lipogenesis in reverse

 Oxaloacetic acid is necessary for the complete

oxidation of fat

 Without it, acetyl CoA is converted into ketones

(ketogenesis)

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Lipogenesis and Lipolysis

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Lipid Metabolism:
Synthesis of Structural Materials

 Phospholipids are important components of myelin

and cell membranes

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Lipid Metabolism:
Synthesis of Structural Materials
 The liver:

 Synthesizes lipoproteins for transport of cholesterol and fats

 Makes tissue factor, a clotting factor

 Synthesizes cholesterol for acetyl CoA

 Uses cholesterol to form bile salts

 Certain endocrine organs use cholesterol to synthesize steroid

hormones

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Protein Metabolism
 Excess dietary protein results in amino acids being:

 Oxidized for energy

 Converted into fat for storage

 Amino acids must be deaminated prior to oxidation

for energy

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Protein Metabolism

 Deaminated amino acids are converted into:

 Pyruvic acid

 One of the keto acid intermediates of the Krebs

cycle

 These events occur as transamination, oxidative

deamination, and keto acid modification

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Synthesis of Proteins

 Amino acids are the most important anabolic

nutrients, and they form:

 All protein structures

 The bulk of the body’s functional molecules

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Synthesis of Proteins

 Amounts and types of proteins:

 Are hormonally controlled

 Reflect each life cycle stage

 A complete set of amino acids is necessary for protein

synthesis

 All essential amino acids must be provided in the diet

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State of the Body

 The body exists in a dynamic catabolic-anabolic

state

 Organic molecules (except DNA) are continuously

broken down and rebuilt

 The body’s total supply of nutrients constitutes its

nutrient pool

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Carbohydrate/Fat and Amino
Acid Pools

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Absoprtive State
Principal Pathways of the
Absorptive State
 In muscle:

 Amino acids become protein

 Glucose is converted to glycogen

 In the liver:

 Amino acids become protein or are deaminated to keto acids

 Glucose is stored as glycogen or converted to fat

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Metabolic Rate

 Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

 Reflects the energy the body needs to perform

its most essential activities

 Total metabolic rate (TMR)

 Total rate of kilocalorie consumption to fuel

all ongoing activities

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Developmental Aspects
 Many agents prescribed for age-related medical problems influence
nutrition

 Diuretics can cause hypokalemia by promoting potassium loss

 Antibiotics can interfere with food absorption

 Mineral oil interferes with absorption of fat-soluble vitamins

 Excessive alcohol consumption leads to malabsorption problems,

certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies, deranged metabolism, and
damage to the liver and pancreas

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