Manufacturing Technology

(MEC – 205)

Unit – 1
Introduction to Manufacturing and
Metal Casting
What is Manufacturing?
• The word manufacture is derived from two
Latin words manus (hand) and factus (make);
the combination means “made by hand”
• Most modern manufacturing operations are
accomplished by mechanized and automated
equipment that is supervised by human
workers
Manufacturing - Technological
• Application of physical and chemical processes
to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a starting material to make
parts or products
Manufacturing - Economic
• Transformation of materials into items of
greater value by one or more processing
and/or assembly operations
Manufacturing Industries
• Industry consists of enterprises and
organizations that produce or supply goods
and services
• Industries can be classified as:
1. Primary industries - cultivate and exploit natural
resources, e.g., agriculture, mining
2. Secondary industries - take the outputs of
primary industries and convert them into
consumer and capital goods
3. Tertiary industries - service sector
• Secondary industries include manufacturing,
construction, and electric power generation
• Manufacturing includes several industries whose
products are not covered in this book; e.g., apparel,
beverages, chemicals, and food processing
• For our purposes, manufacturing means production
of hardware
– Nuts and bolts, forgings, cars, airplanes, digital
computers, plastic parts, and ceramic products
Specific Industries in Each Category
Three Phases Of The Manufacturing
Process
1. Product design.
2. Selection of materials.
3. Selection of production methods and
techniques.
Three Main Stages Of The Production
Of A Machined Part

1, Rough Forming
Casting, Forging, Welding
2, Finishing
Drilling, machining, surfacing
3, Assembling
The assembly of parts
Types of Manufacturing Processes
• Primary Shaping Processes
• Machining Processes
• Joining Processes
• Surface finishing processes
• Processes effecting change in properties
 Primary Shaping Processes
These processes are to two types some of these finish
the product to its usable from whereas others do not
and require further working to finish the component to
the desired shape and size.
1. Casting 2. Forging
3. Power metal forming 4. Gas Cutting
5. Extruding 6. Rolling
7. Bending 8. Drawing
9. Piercing 10. Shearing
11. Squeezing 12. Spinning
13. Forming 14. Crushing
 Machining Processes
As stated earlier a fairly large number of components need
futher processing after the primary processes. These
components are subjected to one or more of the machining
operations, called secondary processes, to obtain the desired
shape and dimensional accuracy.
1. Turning 2. Threading
3. Knurling 4. Drilling
5. Boring 6. Planning
7. Shaping 8. Slotting
9. Sawing 10. Milling
11. Broaching 12. Hobbing
13. Grinding 14. Routing
15. Unconventional machining
Joining Processes
These processes are used for joining metal parts
and in general fabrication work.
1. Welding 2. Soldering
3. Brazing 4. Riveting
5. Screwing 6. Press fitting
7. Sintering 8. Adhesive bonding
9. Shrink fitting
 Surface Finishing Processes
These processes should not be misunderstood as metal
removing processes in any case as they are primarily intended
to provide a good surface finish or a decorative and/or
protective coating on to the metal surface, although a very
negligible amount of metal removal or addition may take place.
1. Buffing 2. Polishing
3. Honing 4. Lapping
5. Tumbling 6. Super finishing
7. Belt Grinding 8. Sanding
9. Electroplating 10.Metal Spraying
11. Deburring 12. Inorganic coating
13. Anodising 14. Painting
15. Plating 16. Galvanizing
PROCESSES EFFECTIVE CHANGE IN
PROPERTIES
These processes are employed to impart certain
specific properties to the metal parts so as to
make them suitable for particular operations or
uses.
1. Heat treatment 2. Cold working
3. Hot Working 4. Shot Peening
The Casting Process

• First a pattern is made.

• Then a cavity is made by placing a pattern in
wet sand.
• Next molten metal is poured into the cavity of
damp sand.
 Rough Machined
Casting Finish

• The rough casting is now ready for the

machine shop.
• Holes are then bored and reamed.
• Top and bottom surfaces are machined
• Smaller holes will be drilled and
counterbored.
• All corners on cast parts are fillets and rounds.
Pattern
Pattern may be defined as exact same model of casting.
Pattern it may be used for forming an impression called
Mould in Sand or in other suitable material. When this mould
is filled with molten metal and metal is allowed to solidity, it
forms a reproduction of pattern and is known as casting. So
since pattern is a direct duplication so it very closely conforms
to shape and size of desired casting? The ways in which a
pattern different from actual component are-
•It caries an additional allowance to compensate for metal
shrinkage.
•It caries additional allowances over those portions which are
to be machined of finished.
•It caries necessary draft to enable its easy removal from sand
mass.
•It caries additional projections call core prints to produce
seats for cores.
The selections of pattern materials depend upon
following factors.
•The appearances or surface finish of casting to be
produced.
•No. of castings to be made from same pattern.
•Possibility of design changes
Pattern materials:- Pattern materials should be
•Easily worked, shaped and joined
•Light in weight
•Strong, hard and durable
•Dimensionally suitable in all conditions.
•Easily available at low cost
•Able to have good surface finish.
Pattern Materials Used
• Wood
• Metals
• Plastics
• Plaster
• Wax
• Rubbers
Functions of Pattern
• To produce mould cavity of appropriate shape
and size in which molten metal is poured to
obtain desired casting.
• To produce seats (place) for cores in mould in
which cores can be placed to produce cavity in
casting. These seats in mould are called core
prints.
• To establish parting surfaces and lines in mould.
• To minimize defects in casting.
• To enable production of Sand cores with in the
mould.
Pattern Allowances
(1). Shrinkage Allowance:- As metal solidifies and cools, it shrinks
and contraction in size. To compensate for this, A pattern is made
larger than finished casting by means of shrinkage & contraction
allowance. The amount of contraction varies with different metals
and therefore corresponding allowances also differ. Eg. CI has
shrinkage allowances of 10.5mm/metre, while steel is having
allowances of 21.0 mm/meter.
(2). Machining Allowances: - A casting way require machining all
over or on certain specified portions. Such portions or surfaces are
marked already in working drawings. The corresponding portions or
surfaces on pattern are given adequate allowances, in addition to
shrinkage allowances by increasing the metal thickness there to
compensate for loss of metal due to machining on these surfaces.
These allowances also varies and depends upon metal of casting,
method of machining, degree of finish required etc. Ferrous metals
require more allowance than non-ferrous metals.
(3). Draft Allowances:- When a pattern is drawn from mould, there is always
some possibility of injuring the edges of mould. This danger is greatly
decreased, it vertical surfaces of a pattern are tapered inward slightly. This
slight taper in ward on vertical surfaces of a pattern is known as draft. It may
be expressed in mm/meter in degrees. Amount of draft depends upon
• Length of vertical side
• Method of moulding
• Design of pattern

Draft
(4). Distortion Allowances:- Some castings because of their size, shape and
type of metal, tends to distort during cooling period. This is a result of uneven
shrinkage and due to uneven metal thickness or to the one surface being more
exposed another causing it to cool more rapidly. The shape of pattern is thus
bent is opposite direction to over came the distribution.
(5). Rapping or Shaking Allowances:- When a pattern is to be with drawn
from mould, it is first rapped or shaken, by striking over it from side to side. So
that its surface way be free from adjoining sand wall of mould. As a result of
this, size of the mould cavity increases a little and a -ve allowance is to be
provides in pattern to compensate the same however it way be considered
negligible for all practical purpose in small medium size castings.
Types of Pattern
• Single piece pattern:- It is simplest of all of patterns, and made in
one piece, carries no joint , partition or loose pieces. This pattern is
cheapest.

• Two piece or split pattern:- Many times design of casting offers

difficulty in mould making and withdrawal of pattern, if a solid
pattern used . For such castings split or 2-piece patterns are used.
• Multipiece pattern:- Casting having more
complicated design requires patterns in more
then 2 parts in order to facilitate an easy
moulding & withdrawal of pattern. Their
pattern may consists of 3,4 or more no. of
parts depending upon design.

• Match plate pattern:- These patterns are used

where a rapid production of small and
accurate casting is desired on a large scale.
Their construction cost is high but same is
easily compensated by a high rate of
production, greater dimensional accuracy and
minimum requirement for machining in
casting. These patterns are made in 2 pieces.
One piece mounted on one side of plate and
other on other side of plate. These patterns
are made of metals (generally Al.)
• Gated patterns: - These patterns are also used in
mass production of small castings. For such castings,
multi cavity moulds are prepared i.e. a single mould
carries a no. Of cavities as shown. Patterns for these
casting are connected to each other by means of
gate formers which provides suitable gates in sand
for feeding notes metal to these cavities.
• Cope and drag pattern:- When very large
castings are to be made, complete pattern
becomes too heavy to be handled by a single
operator. Such a pattern is made in to 2 parts.
Which are separately moulded in different
moulding after completion of moulds, two
boxes are assembled to form complete cavity,
of which drag and other contain one parts in
cope.
• Other types of patterns are Skeleton pattern,
sweep pattern, segmental pattern, follow board
pattern, loose piece pattern etc.
Core and Core Prints
• Core: - A core can be defined as a body of sand
generally prepared in a core box, which is used to
form a cavity of desired shape and size in casting.
Some times cores are also used to shape those
parts of casting that are not otherwise practical
or physically obtainable by mould produced
directly from pattern.
• Green Sand core: - If pattern issued to from a
core as a part of mould then it is known as green
sand core.
• Dry sand Core: - Cores, which are prepared
separate in core holes, are called dry sand core.
• TYPES OF CORE: - Before discussing type of cores, we will discuss
following terms.
• Core Box: - These are boxes in which cores are prepared.
• Core prints: - When a casting is required to have a hole a core is
used in mould to produce the sand. This core has to be properly
seated in mould on formed impression in sand. To form these
impressions extra projections are added on pattern surface at
proper places these projections are known as core print.
There are various types of core print.
• Horizontal Core Print: - It produces seat for horizontal core in
mould.
• Vertical Core print: - It produces seat to support vertical core in
mould.
• Balanced core print
• Hanging / cover core print
• Wing / drop cover print.
• Drag And cope: - When very large casting are to be mode, then
pattern is made in 2 parts, which are separately moulded in
different moulding boxes. After completion of mould. The two
boxes are assembled to form complete cavity of which one part in
contained by drag and other in cope.
 Gating System
The basic design, which is needed
to construct a smooth and proper
filling of the mold cavity of the
casting without any discontinuity,
voids or solid inclusions. A proper
method of gating system is that it
leads the pure molten metal to
flow through a ladle to the casting
cavity, which ensures proper and
smooth filling of the cavity. This
depends on the layout of the
gating channels too, such as the
direction and the position of the
runner, sprue and ingates.
Objectives
The four main points, which enables a proper
gating system, are:
•Clean molten metal.
•Smooth filling of the casting cavity.
•Uniform filling of the casting cavity.
•Complete filling of the casting cavity.
Elements of a Gating System
The main elements needed for the gating system
are as follows:
•Pouring basin or bush.
•Sprue or downsprue.
•Sprue Well Riser

•Runner
•Ingate
•Runner Extension
•Slag trap
•Riser
• Pouring basin : This is otherwise called as bush or cup. It is circular or
rectangular in shape. It collects the molten metal, which is poured, from
the ladle.
• Sprue : It is circular in cross section. It leads the molten metal from the
pouring basin to the sprue well.
• Sprue Well : It changes the direction of flow of the molten metal to right
angle and passes it to the runner.
• Runner : The runner takes the molten metal from sprue to the casting.
Ingate: This is the final stage where the molten metal moves from the
runner to the mold cavity.
• Ingate: It is the most important part of the gating system. By the ingate,
we can mainly control the flow of molten metal.
• Runner Extension: It is used to reduce the velocity of the molten metal
before entering the cavity. This is done by increasing the volume of
runner.
• Slag trap : It filters the slag when the molten metal moves from the
runner and ingate. It is also placed in the runner.
• Riser : Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold
cavity to compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting when
it starts solidifying.
 Shell Molding
• Casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell of sand held together by thermosetting
resin binder

:
 Steps in shell‑molding
(1) a match‑plate or cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated
and placed over a box containing sand mixed with
thermosetting resin.
(2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure
on the surface to form a hard shell;
(3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away;
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing;
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported
by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished;
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed.
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
– Good dimensional accuracy - machining often not
required
– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
Vacuum Molding
• Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
• The term "vacuum" refers to mold making
rather than casting operation itself
• Developed in Japan around 1970
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
– Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
– Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture‑related defects are absent
• Disadvantages:
– Slow process
– Not readily adaptable to mechanization
Investment Casting
• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pour molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover completely,"
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
Steps in Investment Casting
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a single sprue to form
a pattern tree
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to
melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity,
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the
molten metal is poured, and it solidifies
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting and
the parts are separated from the sprue
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required ‑
this is a net shape process
• Disadvantages:
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
Permanent Mold Casting
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
• The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
Basic Permanent Mold Process
• Uses a metal mold constructed of two
sections designed for easy, precise opening
and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures
Steps in Permanent Mold Casting
(1) mold is preheated and coated
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is
closed,
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where
it solidifies.
Advantages & Limitations
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are
stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
Applications
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited
to high volume production and can be
automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum,
magnesium, copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
Die Casting
• A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
Hot Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure into the
die
•High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
•Applications limited to low melting‑point
metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
•Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Cycle in Hot Chamber Die Casting
• with die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber
• plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into
die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
Cold Chamber Die Casting
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
•High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
•Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
•Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use
on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead) while
cold chamber casting can be used for all materials
which cannot be casted with hot chamber
machines, as they require high pouring temp
Cycle in Cold Chamber Die Casting
• with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten
metal is poured into the chamber
• ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold
is rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of
die cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation
commences after pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces
Setup
Semi Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings rather than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to
supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in
outer sections than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting
is machined away, thus eliminating the
portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods
Casting Defects
• Misrun: A casting that has
solidified before
completely filling mold
cavity

• Mold Shift: A step in cast

product at parting line
caused by sidewise relative
displacement of cope and
drag
• Cold Shut: Two portions of
metal flow together but
there is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing

• Cold Shot: Metal splatters

during pouring and solid
globules form and become
entrapped in casting
• Shrinkage Cavity:
Depression in surface or
internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten
metal available in last
region to freeze
• Sand Blow : Balloon ‑
shaped gas cavity caused by
release of mold gases
during pouring
• Pin Holes: Formation of many
small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

• Penetration: When fluidity of

liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or
core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal
Materials in Manufacturing
• Most engineering materials can be classified
into one of three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
• Their chemistries are different, and their
mechanical and physical properties are
different
• These differences affect the manufacturing
processes that can be used to produce
products from them
In addition to these – Composites
• Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three
basic types rather than a unique category

• Venn Diagram of three basic material types

and composites:
Metals
Usually alloys, which are composed of two
or more elements, at least one of which is
metallic. Two basic groups:
1. Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about
75% of metal tonnage in the world:
• Steel and cast iron
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallic elements
and their alloys:
• Aluminum, copper, nickel, silver, tin, etc.
Ceramics
Compounds containing metallic (or semi-
metallic) and nonmetallic elements.
•Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon
•For processing, ceramics divide into:
1. Crystalline ceramics – includes:
• Traditional ceramics, such as clay, and modern
ceramics, such as alumina (Al2O3)
2. Glasses – mostly based on silica (SiO2)
Polymers
Compound formed of repeating structural units
called mers, whose atoms share electrons to
form very large molecules. Three categories:
1.Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to
multiple heating and cooling cycles without
altering molecular structure
2.Thermosetting polymers - molecules
chemically transform into a rigid structure –
cannot reheat
3.Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior
Composites
Material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to
achieve properties superior to its constituents
•Phase - homogeneous mass of material, such as
grains of identical unit cell structure in a solid metal
•Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of
one phase mixed in a second phase
•Properties depend on components, physical
shapes of components, and the way they are
combined to form the final material