Genes

Biological Approach
 Possible Exam Questions

Short Answer Question (SAQ)

Describe how genetic inheritance influences human behaviour, using
one relevant example. 
“Describe” requires you to give a detailed account of how genes
influence behaviour, using a study or theory to support 
your answer. 

Essay Question (LAQ)

To what extent does genetic inheritance influence human behaviour?
“To what extent” requires an argument for the explanatory power of
genetic inheritance and evidence both supporting and limiting this as an
explanation. This may include giving alternative explanations for human
behaviour that is less focused on genetics inheritance.
 What are genes?
• In the nucleus of each cell in your body are 23 pairs
of chromosomes. One of each pair comes from your father,
​

and the other comes from your mother.

•The chromosomes are made up of strands of the

molecule DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), and the DNA is
grouped into segments known as genes.

•Genes are basic biological units that transmit

characteristics from one generation to the next.

•Genes encode specific traits on functions e.g. height, eye

colour
 Nature vs. Nurture

•Today, there is little doubt that behaviour is influenced by

both nature and nurture

•It is widely recognised that the

debate needs to be reformulated...
 Contemporary Nature vs. Nurture Questions

•What are the relative contributions of biological and

environmental factors to a specific behaviour or trait?

•Can we quantify these contributions?

•How do biological and environmental factors interact?

 Genes & Behaviour
• Genes influence behaviour indirectly

• Genes influence the production of proteins that affect

the anatomy (e.g. brain structure) and physiology
(chemical processes) of the body which can influence
behaviour

• There is usually more than one gene involved in a

behaviour

• Some behaviours are more genetically influenced than

others
 Do Genes Determine Behaviour?

• Genes are not so powerful that they can control

behaviour entirely

• There is an interaction between environmental,

biological, cognitive and genetic factors in the
development of behaviour
 How do psychologists study genes?

•Twin studies

•Adoption Studies

•Family Studies

•Molecular Genetics
 Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
•Form of affective disorder (impacts mood)
 MDD & Depression
•There is some evidence to suggest that genes may influence Major Depression

​
 Kendler et al (2006)

Aim
Kendler and his team wanted to investigate three questions in their
study:
• Past studies suggest a 35 - 45% heritability of major
depression. Would this be true in a large Swedish sample?
• Are there significant gender differences in the heritability of
major depression?
• Is there evidence that genetic and environmental factors in
major depression differ over time?
 Kendler et al (2006)

Method
• Sample: 15,493 Swedish twin pairs born between 1886 and
1958.
• Researchers used a team of trained interviewers to carry out
telephone interviews between 1998 and 2003.
• The interviewers assessed lifetime prevalence of major
depression.

Lifetime prevalence: Indicates the proportion of a

population that has had the characteristic at any time
during their lives
 Kendler et al (2006)

Method
• 8056 twins met the criteria for a diagnosis of major depression at
some point in their life - and 322 twins voluntarily discussed a
history of antidepressant treatment.
• In addition to this information, the interviewers also asked
questions about the twins "shared environment" - that is, when
they were living in the same household - and their "individual-
specific environment" - that is, adult personal life events that may
make members of the twin pair more susceptible to depression.
 Kendler et al (2006)
Results: what do these results suggest?
 Kendler et al (2006)

Results
The results indicate that the heritability of major depression was
significantly higher in women than men.
The concordance rates were significantly higher in monozygotic than
in dizygotic twins. The estimated heritability of major depression
was 0.38, in line with previous research.
There were no significant differences seen in the roles of genetic and
environmental factors in major depression in the three cohorts
spanning birth years 1900-1958. Even when they split the entire
cohort into pre and post World War II, there was no significant
difference.
 Kendler et al (2006)

Conclusions
This study suggests both that the heritability of major depression is
higher in women than in men and that some genetic risk factors for
major depression are sex-specific.
In addition, the study confirms the level of heritability of major
depression found in other studies, strengthening the reliability of
European twin studies.
Kendler et al (2006)
 Diathesis Stress Model

•Claims that MDD may be a result of genetic predisposition AND events from the environment (hence dia-thesis- two explanations).

•According to model individuals’ responses to stressful events depend on their genetic makeup and the nature of the environmental stress.
Diathesis Stress Model
 Caspi et al (2003)
Aim: Examined the role of the 5-HTT gene in MDD.

Hypothesised that people who inherit two short versions of

the 5-HTT gene are more likely to develop MDD after a
stressful life event.

Allele: a variant form

5HTT Gene: Gene related to the re-
uptake of serotonin in the
brain. Adaptations in this gene
have been linked with MDD
of a given gene.
Sometimes, different
alleles can result in
different observable
traits
 Caspi et al (2003)
Method:
•Longitudinal study on 847 New Zealand 26-year-olds

•Divided into three groups based on their 5-HTT alleles

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

2 short 5HHT 1 short & 1 long 2 long 5HHT
alleles 5HHT allele alleles

•Participants filled in a "Stressful life events" questionnaire which asked them

about the frequency of 14 different events - including financial, employment,
health and relationship stressors - between the ages of 21 and 26.
 
•They were also assessed for depression.
 Caspi et al (2003)
Results
•People who had inherited
one or more short
versions of the allele
demonstrated more
symptoms of depression
in response to stressful
life events.

•The effect was strongest

for those with three or
more stressful life events.
 Caspi et al (2003)
Conclusions
•Simply inheriting the gene was not enough to lead to depression, but the
genes' interaction with stressful life events increased one's likelihood of
developing depression.

This provides evidence for the Diathesis Stress model and suggests that
genetic factors and environmental stressors interact in MDD On the one
hand, this seems to be clear evidence of a genetic factor in the development
of depression. People with short alleles were the most likely to become
depressed after stressful life events.

However, many people carry the s allele (almost half the population),  it’s
hard to say that in is the gene that made the difference. Maybe it was the
environmental factors (stressful events) that caused the depression. Certainly
there is not a cause-effect relationship between the genes and the condition
Caspi et al (2003)
 Caspi et al (2003)

Large sample size

G All NZ participants. May not be generalisable to other cultures. All under 30. Age
may impact reaction to stressful events
R Later studies have been able to show similar results = high reliability
A 
Acknowledges the interaction between both biological and environmental factors in
MDD.  This is a more holistic approach, not reductionist.
Internal Validity
Longitudinal data collection: incorporates stressful events over a 5 year period
Self-report measures: issues with demand characteristics: social desirability bias,
V honesty, embarrassment of reporting life stressors or symptoms of MDD etc.
Construct Validity
Depression is a complex disorder. Not everyone experiences the same symptoms.
Questionnaires used to assess mental disorders may not be accurate

E The study met ethical standards as consent was obtained from all participants
 Tully et al (2008)

Aim
To investigate the influence of environmental factors on the risk for psychiatric disorders in adopted and non-adopted children of depressed parents

Exam tip: if you choose to write an essay on

genetic similarities I would advise you choose
twin and adoption studies- I have only included
evaluation for these two methods
 Tully et al (2008)

Method
•Participants were part of a longitudinal study of adoptive families (N=409) and non adoptive families N=208)
•All families had two adolescent siblings (11-20 years) who were no more than five years apart in age
•Adoptive families either had two adopted children, or one adopted child and one biological child
•Adopted and non-adoptive adolescents did not differ significantly in mean age or gender but they did differ significantly in ethnicity-significantly more of the adopted adolescents were Asian
 Tully et al (2008)

Method
•Diagnostic structured interviews were conducted with the adolescents and parents separately by different interviewers
•Adolescent lifetime diagnosis of MDD were assessed using the DSM-IV-TR criteria

DSM-IV-TR: a standardised tool

used universally to diagnose
mental disorders
 Tully et al (2008)

Results
•Maternal depression (mothers with MDD) and MDD in both parents (but not just with fathers) was associated with a greater likelihood of MDD in both adopted and non-adopted adolescents
•There was no significant difference between the likelihood of MDD in the adopted and non-adopted adolescents
 Tully et al (2008)

Conclusions
•The association between maternal depression and risk of adolescent MDD was the same in both adoptive and non-adoptive adolescents
•This suggests that having a parent who has depression is a risk factor regardless of whether or not they are the biological parent
•This suggests that the risk from having a mother with depression has an environmental component as even children who were not biologically related to the mothers were at increased risk for MDD if their mother had MDD
 Strengths of Genetic Arguments for MDD

•Twin studies have been highly reliable in their results with

concordance rates consistently being higher for MZ twins

•Modern research recognizes the interaction of

environmental and biological factors and does not use a
solely reductionist approach.
 Limitations of Genetic Arguments for MDD

•Correlational studies do not establish a cause and effect

relationship. It is impossible to isolate variables and
separate out other factors in twin studies.

•Twin studies have the problem of generalisability– twin

samples do not necessarily represent the general population.
 Limitations of Genetic Arguments for MDD

•We may know the gene... but we don't understand the

process! Identifying the genes related MDD is one thing, but
knowing exactly HOW the genes have their effect and how the
processes work is another thing. At the moment we understand
very few of these processes clearly.

•Genes are not behaviours. Possessing a gene which makes you

vulnerable to MDD does not necessarily mean that you will
display the behaviour. GENES ARE NOT
DESTINY! Therefore it is impossible to draw clear links
between genetics and behaviour, without a thorough
understanding of the environment in which those genes are being
 Conclusions

Converging evidence from twin studies, family

studies and adoption studies suggest a 40-50%
heritability for MDD

There may be gender differences in heritability

Genes and the environment appear to have a bi-

directional relationship in creating behaviour. Genes
affect the environments we seek out and our reactions
to them. However, the environment also affects how
our genes work! Genes become more or less active in
different environments
 References

Caspi, A Sugden K Moffitt, TE, Taylor, A Craig, W & McClay

J, 2003, ‘Influence of life stress on Depression: moderation by
a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene’, Science, vol 301, no.
5631, pp. 386-389.

Gershon, E S & Nurnberger, J I, 1982, ’Inheritance of major

psychiatric disorders’, Trends in Neurosciences, vol. 5, pp
241-242. 

Kendler, K S, Gatz, M, Gardner, C & Pederson, N 2006, ‘A

Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression’,
American Journal of Psychiatry, vol 163, no. 1, pp. 109-114.