Surrey Mini-School

Lecture 2

R. F. Casten
 Outline
• Introduction, survey of data – what nuclei do

• Independent particle model and residual interactions

– Particles in orbits in the nucleus
– Residual interactions: results and simple physical interpretation
– Multipole decomposition
– Seniority – the best thing since buffalo mozzarella

• Collective models -- Geometrical

– Vibrational models
– Deformed rotors
– Axially asymmetric rotors
– Quantum phase transitions

• Linking the microscopic and macroscopic – p-n interactions

• The Interacting Boson Approximation (IBA) model

Independent Particle Model – Uh –oh !!!
Trouble shows up
 Shell Structure

Mottelson (Nobel Prize for the Unified Model, 1975)

– ANL, Sept. 2006

Shell gaps, magic numbers, and shell structure are not

merely details but are fundamental to our
understanding of one of the most basic features of
nuclei – independent particle motion. If we don’t
understand the basic quantum levels of nucleons in the
nucleus, we don’t understand nuclei. Moreover,
perhaps counter-intuitively, the emergence of nuclear
collectivity itself depends on independent particle
motion (and the Pauli Principle).
 Independent Particle Model

• Some great successes (for nuclei that are “doubly magic

plus 1”).

• Clearly inapplicable for nuclei with more than one particle

outside a doubly magic “core”. In fact, in such nuclei, it is
not even defined. Thus, as is, it is applicable to only a
couple % of nuclei.

• Residual interactions and angular momentum coupling to

the rescue.
 Shell Model with residual
interactions – mostly 2-particle
systems
Simple forces, simple physical
interpretation
 Residual Interactions
• Need to consider a more complete Hamiltonian:

H = H0 + Hresidual
Hresidual reflects interactions not in the single particle potential.

NOT a minor perturbation. In fact, these residual interactions

determine almost everything we know about most nuclei.

Start with 2- particle system, that is, a nucleus “doubly magic + 2”.
Hresidual is H12(r12)

Consider two identical valence nucleons with j1 and j2 .

Two questions: What total angular momenta j1 + j2 = J can be formed?
What are the energies of states with these J values?
 Coupling of two angular momenta

j1j++j2j All
Allvalues
valuesfrom:
from: j1j1––j2j2 toto j1j+ +j2j (j(j1 ==/j/2j))
1 2 1 2 1 2

Example:
Example:j1j1==3,3,j2j2==5:5: JJ==2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,88

BUT:
BUT: For
Forj1j ==j2j: : JJ==0,0,2,2,4,4,6,6,…
…((2j2j––1)
1) (Why
(Whythese?)
these?)
How
Howcancanwe
weknow
knowwhich
whichtotal
totalJJvalues
valuesare
areobtained
obtainedfor
forthe
the
coupling
couplingof
oftwo
twoidentical
identicalnucleons
nucleonsin inthe
thesame
sameorbit
orbitwith
with
total
totalangular
angularmomentum
momentumj? j? Several
Severalmethods:
methods:easiest
easiestisis
the
the“m-scheme”.
“m-scheme”.
Can we obtain
such simple
results by
considering
residual
interactions?
Separate
Separateradial
radialand
andangular
angularcoordinates
coordinates
 Extending the IPM with residual interactions
• Consider now an extension of, say, the Ca nuclei to 43Ca, with three particles in
a j= 7/2 orbit outside a closed shell?

• How do the three particle angular momenta, j, couple to give final total J
values?

• If we use the m-scheme for three particles in a 7/2 orbit the allowed J values
are 15/2, 11/2, 9/2, 7/2, 5/2, 3/2.

• For the case of J = 7/2, two of the particles must have their angular momenta
coupled to J = 0, giving a total J = 7/2 for all three particles.

• For the J = 15/2, 11/2, 9/2, 5/2, and 3/2, there are no pairs of particles
coupled to J = 0.

• Since a J = 0 pair is the lowest configuration for two particles in the same orbit,
that case, namely total J = 7/2, must lie lowest !!
 43
Ca

Treat as 20 protons and 20

neutrons forming a doubly
magic core with angular
momentum J = 0. The lowest
energy for the 3-particle
configuration is therefore
J = 7/2.

Note that the key to this is the

results we have discussed for
the 2-particle system !!
How can we understand the energy patterns
that we have seen for two – particle spectra
with residual interactions? Easy – involves
a very beautiful application of the Pauli
Principle.
xx
 This is the most
important slide:
understand this and
all the key ideas
about residual
interactions will be
clear !!!!!
RR4/2<<2.0
4/2 2.0
Backups
 Shell model too crude. Need to add in extra
interactions among valence nucleons outside closed
shells.

These dominate the evolution of Structure

• Residual interactions

– Pairing – coupling of two identical nucleons to angular

momentum zero. No preferred direction in space, therefore
drives nucleus towards spherical shapes

– p-n interactions – generate configuration mixing, unequal

magnetic state occupations, therefore drive towards
collective structures and deformation

– Monopole component of p-n interactions generates

changes in single particle energies and shell structure
 So, we will have a Hamiltonian

H = H0 + Hresid.

where H0 is that of the Ind. Part. Model

We need to figure out what Hresid. does.

Think of the three particles as 2 + 1. How do the 2 behave?
We have now seen that they prefer to form a J = 0 state.