7.

Introduction to micro-world
Quantum theory
There was a theoretical catastrophe in physics at the end of the 19th century concerning the
calculation of the energy contained in the waves within an enclosed cavity. Since its
molecules and charged particles in them are vibrating and accelerating, they should cause
electromagnetic waves (charged particles’ acceleration is the source of electromagnetic
waves like x-ray, light, microwave, radio wave etc. of different wavelengths). Therefore in
the cavity such waves would be bouncing, getting absorbed, and emitted from the walls of
the cavity. All frequencies which have a whole number of peaks and troughs that fit
between the surfaces of the cavity, will be allowed. As there will be infinite variety of
such allowed wavelengths in the radiation, physical laws kept telling us that there should
be infinite amount of energy in the waves – which is impossible. This is because each
allowed frequency carries, according to thermodynamics, the same amount of energy
determined by the temperature of the cavity and not by its frequency.
Max Planck in Germany gave a theory in 1900, to avoid the catastrophe assuming that
waves could be emitted only in discrete bundles – the quantum. The higher the frequency
(shorter the wave), the more energy is there in the bundle. For lower frequencies the
required number of bundles of each frequency together will attain the expected common
energy determined by the temperature. As we go for bundles for higher and higher
frequency, there comes a bundle which has to carry more energy than the expected
common energy. The bundles of higher energy than this can not contribute any energy.
Therefore we would no longer get the infinite energy.
According to this quantum theory each of the bundle of radiating waves has an energy
given by: E=hf
Where f is the frequency and h is a constant called Planck's constant, which has a very
small value of 6.63×10-34 Joules. sec. It is because of the very small value of h and
consequently very small energy of a quantum that makes the theory menifest only in
atomic scale phenomena.
Thus light has such bundles of energy called photons. Increasing the brightness of the
light does not increase the energy of the photons, but merely supplied more photons. If
light strikes certain metal surface and eject electron from it we call it photoelectric effect.
Brighter light having more photons will eject more electrons but not more energetic
electrons. But if photons with higher frequency of light wave strikes the surface then more
energetic electrons are ejected. However we can call this the ejection with higher
maximum energy, because some electrons will lose some energy by collision with atoms
etc. Einstein in 1905 noticed these phenomena and explained this with quantum theory.
Without such quantum explanation the phenomenon of brighter light not giving more
energetic electron could not be explained.

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Such experiments showed that electromagnetic waves have a particle aspect as well as a
wave aspect (because these can demonstrate diffraction interference etc. like wave). Thus
there was a wave-particle duality problem.

Matter waves: In 1924 Louis de Boglie suggested that as waves such as that of light has
particle character, so the particles of matter such as electrons and protons (Constituent of
nucleus which is positively charged) should have a wave nature. Its wavelength is given
by:
h where m is the mass and v is the velocity, mv being
λ
mv the momentum of the particle.
This is true about any matter, even bigger one like a foot ball or a planet. But in their case
mass will be so big compared to the tiny value of h that the wavelength will be too small
to measure. Here too Planck's constant is involved with the wave-particle duality. De
Boglie’s theory was proved by subsequent experiments obtaining diffraction and
interference pattern from beams of electrons and other particles (as would be expected of
waves).

Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961) discovered the equation that describes these waves. The
familiar waves like water waves are created by cooperative motion of many water
particles. But this is not the case with these matter waves in Schrödinger’s equation. Here
even a single particle has these waves by itself and actually represents the probability of
the position of the particle being in various parts of space. The waves with various
probabilities interfere and produce all kinds of complex combinations – giving quantum
mechanical results. But for large systems these ‘interference terms’ generally average out
and

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we are left with ordinary classical results. This is why an electron behaves quantum
mechanically, but a billiard ball does not. Being atomic phenomena much in modern
physics and chemistry – magnetism, nuclear physics, electronics, solid state physics,
chemical bonds etc. have been explained and used through quantum mechanics,
without which these could not be done.

The uncertainty principle: According to quantum physics one can not have in
principle the precise knowledge of both the position and the momentum (and hence
the speed) of a material particle, therefore scientific predictions can be made only to a
certain degree of accuracy. The prediction becomes fuzzy at a specific small level
indicated by
Δx Δp  h
Δx and Δp represents the uncertainty in position and the uncertainty of momentum
respectively. If one is reduced to make it more precise the other will become
imprecise to that extent. If we want to be completely certain about position for
example, then the momentum and the velocity will become infinitely uncertain. With
similar argument quantum mechanics indicates other pairs such as uncertainty in
energy and the uncertainty in the time taken to apply that energy. For a very small
energy that is precisely known, we can borrow that energy easily, from the space
because we would have indeterminate, even near infinite time to borrow it and then
later to give it back. Many strange things follow from such uncertainty at atomic level
(As h is very small uncertainties in the position, momentum, energy etc. in
macroscopic bodies such as a billiard ball is negligible). For example particles can
pass through unsurpassable energy barriers as certainty in energy will allow very
uncertain time for borrowing energy and pay it back. Such ‘tunneling’ has made real
electronic devices (tunnel diode) possible.
Q. What evidences support the wave aspects of light, and what evidences support the
particle aspects?
Q. What do we mean when we say that the rest mass of photon is zero. Why is it
zero?
A. when a photon is in motion with respect to an outside frame, from that frame’s
point of view it will measure to have a mass according to special relativity. But from
the point of view of the frame where is photon is the mass is zero.

mo
Using m , For photon v  c, and
1 -v 2 /c 2
Therefore mo  m  0  0

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Q. If both the electron and the photon are particles, as well as waves, what are the
fundamental difference between the two.
A. Electrons have non-zero rest mass, and an electric charge; photon has none.
Q. Devise an experiment to show that De Broglie's wave is associated with a single
particle, and not necessarily with a whole group of particles such as in water wave
etc.
A. If we allow a beam of light to go through a slit and allow two parts of it go
through two slits near each other they will form an interference fringe on a screen. If
we do the same with an electron beam it will do the same. Now if we reduce the
number of electrons in the beam the brightness of the pattern will reduce but there
will still be the same pattern.
Even when arrive at a single electron in motion still there with be a pattern however
faint it is. This means somehow some property of a single electron (wave function)
is getting split and interfering. But a water wave will not form with a single
molecule of water.

Small
piece
Electrons of film

Q. What is the importance of Planck's constant?

Q. What is the difference between uncertainty due to experimental error, and the
quantum theoretical uncertainty?
Q. Why cant we think that an electron is going through one of the slits of a two slit
experiment. What will happen if we force it so?
A. Then we would not have the interference pattern. If we force it through one slit,
its position will be definite so its momentum (velocity) will become infinitely
uncertain.
Q. Why would it require a large force to confine an electron to a very small region of
space.

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A. The uncertainty of position becomes very small, so the uncertainty is momentum
becomes very large. The more uncertain momentum creates greater likelihood that
the momentum is very high. These very high momentum states of the electron will
create a resisting pressure on the force trying to confine the electron, and the force
required will be higher and higher and extremely so.

The structure of atom

Radioactivity: In 1896 it was discovered that there is emission of high energy
particles (or waves) from certain substances such as uranium, radium etc. This
phenomenon is called Radioactivity. Later it was found that three types of
emissions take place – alpha particles a positive particle, beta particles which are
high energy electrons, and gamma particles which are high energy photons. The
emission is random, and later proved to be coming from nucleus, the central part of
atom – a decay process which changes atom of one element to that of another
element.
Rutherford conducted in 1909 an experiment referred to as Gold Foil experiment.
In this positive alpha particles from radioactive material were shot toward a gold
foil and a few of these particles were detected to be repelled right back while others
go straight through. This shows that atom has a small very high positive charge that
repelled the positive alpha particles. This gave an structure of atom with a small
positively charged nucleus at the centre having most of the mass of atom, and much
smaller and lighter electrons revolving around this in various orbits – somewhat
similar to our solar system.
Taken to pure quantum mechanics the orbits gave way to more complex orbitals
which are actually various formation of probability clouds (waves) proved to be
even more powerful in explaining and predicting properties of atom and groups of
atoms.

Atom model according to the

quantum mechanics with ‘electron
clouds’ representing various
orbitals.

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It was found that the nucleus, the central part of the atom, also has a structure. It is
the protons or the hydrogen nucleus, which comprises nuclei of atoms heavier than
hydrogen, the number of protons giving the atom its positive charge (and equal
number of electrons outside the nucleus giving the atom equal negative charge, and
is called atomic number. Proton is much heavier than electron but has the equal and
opposite charge. Another particle in nucleus, neutron, was discovered by
Chadwick in 1932 – of almost same size and mass as proton, but neutral in charge.
Atoms heavier than hydrogen have neutrons as well as protons in their nucleus,
making atomic weight more than the atomic number. Atom is kept together by the
electrostatic attraction between positive nucleus and negative electrons. Now it was
found that there was another much stronger but much shorter range force – the
nuclear force – which keeps protons and neutrons together in the nucleus
overwhelming the electrostatic repulsions between the protons existing so close to
each other.
Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner in Germany (1937) discovered that if a heavy nucleus
such as Uranium is struck with a slow neutron, the neutron is absorbed and as a
result the nucleus is splitted and a part of the mass is converted into energy. A few
neutrons also result from such splitting called nuclear fission, which can strike
other nuclei (after getting slowed down by some moderator such as graphite)
starting a chain reaction of fission and releasing considerable energy. Considering
the number of atoms involved in even a small amount of nuclear fuel material, this
‘nuclear energy’ released can be extremely large compared with other sources.

6
This Nuclear Energy by fission has been used in ‘atom bombs’ in an uncontrolled
manner. The same thing happens in a nuclear reactor in a controlled manner, and
the energy is used to produce electricity.

If the binding energy within the nucleus because of nuclear force is plotted in a
graph against the binding energy per particle, there is a maximum. This shows that
for heavier nuclei than those corresponding to the maximum binding energy,
smaller nucleus (higher energy per particle) needs less binding energy. Fission
creating smaller nuclei, therefore releases some energy. Similarly in the case of
nuclei lighter than those corresponding to the maximum energy, bigger nucleus
(lower energy per particle) needs less energy. Therefore when lighter nuclei fuse
together to form a heavier nucleus energy is released in a process called Nuclear
Fusion. Hydrogen nuclei thus can fuse to form heavier helium nucleus releasing
energy. This is how sun and all stars produce their energy. Also hydrogen bomb
uses this fusion process. To do this kinetic energy has to be large enough for the
hydrogen nuclei to come close to each other before repulsive electromagnetic force
can tear them apart. This requires very high temperature. There is already such high
temperature within the stars when the process of fusion begins. The high
temperature required in hydrogen bomb is created by a fission bomb (atom bomb).
But for a controlled reactor producing electricity such temperature could not yet be
created without jeopardizing the confining system of the hydrogen fuel. It is this
involvement of high temperature that gives the name of such energy as
Thermonuclear Energy.

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Elementary particles: What is everything made of? Ultimately everything is made
of so called fundamental particles or elementary particles – of course with their
wave as well as particle aspects. We have already met comparatively massive
protons and neutrons, as well as very light electrons and rest massless photons.
There are many others, most of them less stable eg. muon which is of intermediate
mass between proton (or neutron) and electron.
In 1930 Anderson discovered a particle exactly similar to electron but with a
positive charge unlike the negative charge of electron. He called it positron – an
antiparticle of electron. Now we know that for every particle there is an antiparticle
with same mass but opposite charge. Thus there are antiproton, antimuon, and even
an antineutron though in this case it is not the charge, but some other property
which is opposite. As particles make up matter, similarly antiparticles make up
antimatter when a particle and an antiparticle come together, they annihilate each
other, leaving two or more photons or other particles, which ensures that energy
and momentum are conserved. Similarly in certain processes of sufficient energy
particles and antiparticles are created in pair– the process being called pair
production. Of course there must be at least enough energy available to make up
the rest mass of the pair of particles. In the opposite process where for example, an
electron and a positron come together annihilating each other to form photons the
rest masses completely disappears transformed into the kinetic energy (mass) of
photons.

8
Elementary particles can be grouped into families such as baryon family (protons
neutron and some other heavy particles), electron family, muon family, mason
family etc.
There are some other particles associated with electromagnetic, gravitational and
strong interactions respectively. Thus electromagnetic interaction between charged
particles may be thought of as an exchange of photons between them – the photons
in a sense carry the interaction. The same with other interactions with their carriers.
These particles follow the quantum statistics discovered by Sateyndra Nath Bose of
Dhaka University (1924). This is why these particles are called bosons. The other
particles follow the statistics of Enrico Fermi, and are called fermions.
Apart from the three interactions we have mentioned (gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong nuclear) there is a fourth interaction called weak interaction
which involves decay of neutron into proton or proton into neutron with the
emission of two other particles. This happens in the nucleus of the radioactive
atoms, for example, emitting beta particles. The carrier of weak interaction are two
other bosons called W boson and Z bosons. Another boson was predicted in 1962
by Peter Higgs which is important for various reasons. It has been experimentally
found only very recently in 2012 with the reactions involving the collision of high
energy protons in the Large Hadron Collider in CERN laboratory, Geneva. This is
called Higg’s Boson (also nicknamed as God particle).
Q. How does radioactive emission differ from the process governed by Newton's
law of motion?
A. In radioactive emission mass-energy conversion takes place and uncertainty
principle is invoked, the latter allows, for example, alpha particles that do not have
enough energy to get through the energy barrier offered by the nucleus (barrier
penetration or tunneling). Remember energy-time uncertainty. For a very small
precise time, the energies can be very uncertain, and can master higher energy, and
if they can move fast enough can utilize this window of opportunity, as a certain
probability for penetration. Newton’s law does not allow these.
Q. What was surprising about the alpha particle-gold foil experiment?
Q. How could you tell alpha particles are positively charged, beta particles are
negatively charged, and gamma particles are uncharged.
A. Charged particles will move in a curve in magnetic field – directions showing
whether it is positively or negatively charged. Gamma rays go straight. These
create traces in cloud chamber and bubble chamber.

9
Q. How can nuclear fission and fusion both be used to produce energy when they are
opposite processes?
Q. Why would it be easier to shoot neutron into nucleus (as in fission) than to shoot
proton into it (as in gold foil experiment)?
Q. why would it be difficult for matter and antimatter to exist in close contact?
Q. Can matter be created and destroyed? Explain.
Q. Why radioactivity and other radiations are treated as a pollution? Why the same can
be used in a therapy?
A. Natural radioactivity occurs in the environment, for example as cosmic ray from
space. However radiation pollution arises chiefly from man’s use of radioactive
materials. Alpha, beta, and gamma particles from radioactive materials as well as
neutrons emitted from nuclear reactors (in addition to the other three) are called
nuclear radiation. Other particles such as proton (in cosmic ray), x-rays, etc. are simply
called radiation. Biologically important molecules such as those in the cell nucleus
may be ionized directly or indirectly by radiation and may lose its function. Cell death
may occur without replacement. In some cases damaged cell may still have the
capacity to divide in an uncontrolled rate causing tumors and cancers.
A controlled use of radiation however, for example from radioisotopes, can have uses
to cure by killing diseased cells such as cancer cells. This is called radiotherapy.

Transistor
Electronics has been an important branch of physics starting from the days of first
wireless communication. Today it is the discipline which has made possible all the
telecommunications and radio communication, technology dominating entertainment,
and most of all computer and IT. The device at the heart of modern electronics has
been transistor.
Transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signal and
electronic power. It is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices.
Today some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits. It is the quantum mechanical theory which has made possible the
transistor principle and other electronic principles.
In a semiconductor such as silicon the usually intrinsic material with equal number of
conducting negative charge (electrons) and conducting positive charge (hole, actually
absence of electron) can be ‘doped’ into p-type (with many more holes) or n type with
many more electrons. Doping means to add a small amount of appropriate foreign
atoms. A junction formed between the p type and n type semiconductor called p-n
junction is vital in electronic devices.

10
 Transistor Principle: Transistor is a back to back formation of two p-n junctions
either as PNP transistor or NPN transistor. It has 3 elements:
Emitter: It emits electrons in NPN transistor and holes in PNP.
Base: It is the controlling terminal. A current through base (IB) controls the current
through the transistor (IC).

Collector: Basically collects the emitted electrons.

For proper working of a NPN transistor the voltage at base region must be more
positive than that of emitter region, and the voltage at the collector region must be
more positive than that of the base region. When voltage is applied to transistor, the
emitter supplies electrons which is pulled by the base. This movement of electrons
from emitter to collector creates a current through the transistor. The adjustment of
the base voltage modifies the flow of the current in the transistor. In this way a small
change in the base voltage can cause large changes in the current flowing out of the
collector. This enables it to be used as a switch or as an amplifier. The amplification
is needed for many electronic circuits such as land speakers, radio, TV etc.

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This can be understood better comparing it with a water system. In the diagram
suppose water passes from main tank C (compared to collector) to another tank E
(compared to emitter). But the water can not flow because a big plunger valve
connected to smaller empty tank B (compared to base) is blocking the way. In such
circumstance the pressure will build in the system (as voltage builds in transistor).
Now if we pour water through the opening of B, water pushes the plunger upward
allowing some water to pass from C to E. Thus by controlling the amount of water in
B, much bigger flow of water from C and E can be controlled. This is compared to
controlling the big transistor current by smaller base current. This is how a transistor
work as an amplifier.
The transistor can also be used to switch the current flow on or off. If we put sufficient
current in the base than the transistor will allow maximum current to pass putting it in
‘on’ mode. If we reduce the base current to an extent that no current can pass through
the transistor it will be in ‘off’ mode.
Transistor for Computer Logic Gates: Computer basically manipulates binary signals 0
and 1 i.e. off (false) and on (true) states. It is the logic gates or logic switches that
perform the basic logical function of this manipulation. Most logic gates take an input
of two binary values A and B which can be either 1 (true) or 0 (false). The resulting
output is a single value of 1 if it is true, or 0 if it is false. Thus the gate called AND
gives a true output if A & B both are true; gate OR gives true if either A or B is true;
gate NOT gives true if input is false, and false if input is true; and so on.
By combining a few gates simple logical operations including basic arithmetic like
addition and multiplication can be done, while the operations are all done in binary
number system consulting only of 0 and 1. By combing thousands or millions of logic
gates, it is possible to perform highly complex operations. This is what is done in the
microprocessor which is an integrated circuit consisting of millions of logic gates.
Microprocessor is the heart of any computer.
Logic gates are usually constructed out of a few transistors. This is because of the
transistor’s utility as fast switches. For example when sufficient current

NPN Transistor AND Gate

resistance
Base collector

emitter

collector
Base emitter

resistance

zero potential

12
is put in the base region the collector voltage with respect to the emitter is near zero.
If two transistors are in series with their bases as logic inputs A and B, and the
emitter of the one as the logic output, this can act as an AND gate. Here both
transistors have to be in the conducting state (true) to drive the output high (true).
Any other situation will give the output low (false).
The construction of logic gates with transistors makes microprocessor an integrated
circuit of extremely packed miniaturized transistors.

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