How you can use these notes:

Write them again and again- every day & memorise them.

Write out/ Print in A4 and stick on your wall- read before sleep.

Print out as A5 flashcards and revise from them.

All of the above because you’re serious about that grade.

 AEROBIC RESPIRATION C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Definition: Splitting of the respiratory substrate (e.g. glucose) to release carbon dioxide as a waste product and reuniting
of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen with the release of a large amount of energy.

(1) Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm) [Produces: 2 x (3C) Pyruvate,

2NAD(H), 2 ATP]
-Glycogen from muscles and liver cells are converted to hexose sugar
(glucose).
-Two phosphate groups P(i) are added to glucose, this makes is
UNSTABLE and REACTIVE.
-Splits into 2 molecules of (3C) compound. Each (3) compound is
oxidised to produce pyruvate (3C). The two hydrogen atoms lost are
collected by coenzyme NAD- forming two reduced NAD. Phosphate
groups, P(i) from the pyruvate are given to ADP> two molecules of
ATP are formed through substrate-level phosphorylation.
(4) Oxidative phosphorylation (in the mitochondrial matrix) [1
Glucose= 32 ATP]
Reduced NAD and FAD from other stages release their
hydrogen atoms- which split into H+ and an electron.
Electrons move along 3 carrier proteins in the electron
transport chain on the mitochondrial matrix and lose
energy.

(2) The Link reaction [Produces: Acetyl coA, 2NAD(H), CO2 ]
(3C) pyruvate is decarboxylated> so CO2 is released (waste product)
AND dehydrogenated so 2 Hydrogen atoms are removed by NAD.
Left with a (2C) compound. The (2C) compound combines with the
coenzyme A- producing Acetyl-coA.
(3) The Krebs cycle (in the mitochondrial matrix) [Produces: 2CO2,
1ATP, 3NAD(H), 1FAD(H)]
-Acetyl coA combines with (4C) Oxaloacetate to regenerate coA and
form (6C) Citrate.
-(6C) Citrate- is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated, forming a (5C)
compound.
-The (5C) compound is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated forming a
(4C) compound. This time two NAD(H) and one FAD(H) are made.
There is an intermediate compound- gives a P(i) to ADP> forming ATP.
The intermediate then becomes (4C) Oxaloacetate which goes back
into the Krebs cycle.
Energy used by carriers to pump protons from
mitochondrial matrix to the inter-membrane space. H+
concentration is greater in the inter-membrane space
which creates an electrochemical gradient.
Protons move down the gradient- back into the
mitochondrial matrix via ATP synthase on stalked particle.
This movement drives the synthesis of ATP- this is called
the CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY or CHEMIOSMOSIS.
At the end of the electron transport chain, in the
mitochondrial matrix H+ combine with an electron and O2
from blood to form WATER.
 NORMAL ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY OF THE HEART

(4) Instead, these waves of electrical

activity are transferred from the SAN to
the AVN.
(5) The AVN is responsible for passing the
waves of electrical activity onto the
Bundle of His. There is a slight delay
before the AVN reacts, to make sure that
the ventricles contract only after the
atria have expired fully.
(6) The Bundle of His is a group of muscle
fibres responsible for conducting the
waves of electrical activity to the finer
muscle fibres in the right and left
ventricle walls- called the Purkeyne
fibres.
(7) The Purkeyne fibres carry the waves
of electrical activity into the muscular
walls of the right and left ventricles,
causing them to contract simultaneously,
(1) The Sino Atrial Node (SAN) is in the wall of the right atrium- it’s the from the bottom to the top.
pacemaker of the heart. The SAN sets the rhythm of the heartbeat by
sending out regular waves of electrical activity to the atrial walls.
(2) This causes the right and left atria to contract at the same time.
(3) A band of non-conducting collagen tissue prevents waves of electrical
activity from being passed directly from the atria to the ventricles.
 BREATHING RATE
Controlled by two ventilation centres in the medulla- the
inspiratory and the expiratory centre.
• The inspiratory centre in the medulla sends impulses to
intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles, making
them contract= This increases the volume of the lungs>
lowers pressure in the lungs. Inspiratory centre also
send impulses to inhibit the expiratory centre.
• Air enters the lungs because of the pressure difference
between lung air and the air outside.
• As lungs inflate, stretch receptors in lungs are
stimulated. These send nerve impulses back to the
medulla. These impulses inhibit the inspiratory centre.
• The expiratory centre is no longer inhibited- it sends
impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to
relax. This causes lungs to deflate, expelling air. As
lungs deflate, stretch receptors become inactive=
inspiratory centre is no longer inhibited so the cycle
starts again.
Decrease in blood pH = Increase in breathing rate
During exercise, CO2 level in the blood increases> this
decreases the pH of blood. There are chemoreceptors
that are sensitive to pH changes, in the medulla, aortic
bodies & carotid bodies.
• Chemoreceptors sense a pH decrease > send impulses
to the medulla> medulla sends MORE FREQUENT
impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm >
this increases the RATE and DEPTH of breathing.
• This speeds up gas exchange so the CO2 level drops
and extra O2 is supplied to muscles.
HEART RATE
Controlled by the Cardiovascular Control Centre in the Medulla.
pH decrease> Heart Rate increase:
A decreases is detected by chemoreceptors. These send
impulses to the medulla. The medulla sends impulses to the
SAN to increase the heart rate.
Blood pressure increase> Heart Rate decrease:
-Pressure receptors in the aorta wall and carotid sinuses
detect changes in blood pressure.
-If pressure is too high, receptors send impulses to the
cardiovascular control central which sends impulses to the
SAN to SLOW DOWN the heart rate.
-If pressure is too low, pressure receptors send nerve impulses
to the cardiovascular control centre which sends impulses to
the SAN to SPEED UP the heart rate.
Cardiac output: total volume of blood pumped by a ventricle
every minute.
Stroke Volume: volume of blood pumped by one ventricle
each time it contracts.
Cardiac Output = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume
cm /min
3
b.p.m. cm3
Cardiac Output increases with exercise because Heart Rate
increases.
Ventilation rate: Volume of air breathed in or out in a period
of time e.g. a minute.
Ventilation rate increases during exercise because breathing
rate and depth increases.
 THE HUMAN
EYE
Light enters the eye through the pupil. The amount of
light that enters is controlled by the iris muscles.
Light rays are focused by the lens onto the retina, which
lies on the inside of the eye. The retina contains
photoreceptor cells. The fovea is the area in the retina
that controls lots of photoreceptors. Impulses from the
photoreceptors are carried from the retina to the optic
nerve to the brain. The optic nerve is a bundle of
neurones. There are no photoreceptors where the optic
nerve leaves the eye- the blind spot.
The human eye has TWO types of
photoreceptors
• Rods- Found in the peripheral parts of the retina.
Gives information in black and white
(monochromatic vision.)
• Cones- Found packed together in the fovea. Gives
information in colour (trichromatic vision). There are
3 types of cones: red, green and blue- sensitive.
They’re stimulated in different proportions so you
see different colours.
When it’s DARK, rod cells are NOT stimulated:
• Sodium ions (Na+), are pumped out of the cell using active
transport. But these can diffuse back in through open (Na+)
channels.
• This makes the inside of the cell only slightly negative
compared to the outside- the cell membrane is
DEPOLARISED (not much difference in potential.)
• Depolarisation triggers the release of neurotransmitters.
• These neurotransmitter inhibit the bipolar neurone- so it
cannot fire an action potential. No information is sent to the
brain.
When it’s LIGHT, rod cells ARE stimulated:
• Light energy causes Rhodopsin (purplish pigment) to break
down into Retinal and Opsin- this is BLEACHING.
• Bleaching causes (Na+) channels to close. So (Na+) are
actively transported out of the cell but they cannot diffuse
back in.
• This causes (Na+) to build up outside of the cell, making the
inside of the cell much more negative than the outside- the
cell membrane is HYPERPOLARISED.
• When a rod cell is hyperpolarised, it stops releasing
neurotransmitters. This means the bipolar neurone is not
inhibited so it depolarises.
• If the change in potential difference reaches the threshold,
an action potential is transmitted along the optic nerve to
the brain.
 Cerebrum-See, think, CT- Computed Tomography
BRAIN STRUCTURE learn, feel emotions. Uses x-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the brain. More
dense areas > absorbs more radiation > shows up lighter.
The heaviest part of the
Structure: Shows the major brain structures.
brain, making up 2/3 of
Function: Doesn’t show brain function directly but unusual scan
brain mass. Divided into can be compared with patient’s loss of function- it would imply
two parts called the left that the function loss is due to damage to that area.
and right hemispheres. Diagnosis: Useful e.g. bleeding after a stroke- blood shows up
Each hemisphere lighter as it has different density to brain tissue. Can show location
contains four lobes. and extent of bleeding. Used to work out which blood vessels are
Cerebellum- Co-ordinates Surrounded by a thin damaged> which functions will be affected.
movement. Located under the layer- the cerebral
cerebrum. Also has a folded MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
cortex which is highly Uses a magnetic field and radio waves to produce cross-sectional
cortex. Controls movement and folded= large surface
balance. images of the brain. More expensive than CT.
area. Structure: More detailed than CT- can clearly see the difference
Hypothalamus- Controls body temperature (thermo between normal & abnormal tissue.
regulation) automatically maintains body temperature at Function: Same with CT. Scan compared with condition.
the normal level. Produces hormones that control the Diagnosis: Useful e.g. tumour- tumour cells respond to a magnetic
pituitary gland just below it. field differently- show up lighter. Can show the exact location and
size of the tumour so the correct/ most effective treatment can be
Medulla- Controls breathing rate & heart rate. Ventilation given. Any resulting loss of function can be predicted.
and Cardiovascular Control Centre. Located at the base of
fMRI- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
the brain and at the top of the spinal cord.
Same as MRI but shows changes to brain activity as they happen.
Functions of the lobes: More oxygenated blood flows to active brain regions= molecules in
-Frontal- Reasoning, planning, decision-making, this respond differently to those in deoxygenated- appears lighter.
consciousness of emotions. Forming associations and Structure: Similar to MRI- good detail.
ideas. Also includes the primary motor cortex. Function: Function is carried out whilst in the scanner- brain
-Parietal- Orientation, sensation, calculation, movement, regions involved will be more active & COLOURED so they show up
some recognition, memory. more easily.
-Occipital- Visual cortex- vision, shape, colour, Diagnosis: Very useful. Shows abnormal brain regions & allows
scientists to study conditions caused by abnormalities- some
recognition, perspective.
conditions don’t have obvious structural causes.
-Temporal- Auditory- sound recognition, speech, hearing.
 PARKINSON’S DISEASE
• Parkinson’s is a brain disorder which destroys
neurones in the parts of the brain that control
movement.
• So Parkinson’s affects the person’s motor skills.
• Because of the loss of these neurones which usually
release the neurotransmitter dopamine, there is a
lack of dopamine in the brain.
• This causes fewer nerve impulses to be transmitted
in the part of the brain that controls movement.
• Because scientists know that this is due to low
dopamine levels, they have developed drugs to
increase dopamine levels in the brain.
L-Dopa
• L-Dopa is a drug used to treat Parkinson’s disorder.
• It’s structure is very similar to that of dopamine.
• When given, it is absorbed in the brain and
converted to dopamine by the enzyme Dopa-
Carboxylase. This increases dopamine levels in the
brain.
• Dopamine is not given directly as it cannot pass the
blood-brain barrier.
• Increased dopamine level means that more nerve
impulses are transmitted in synapses in the parts of
the brain that control movement.
• So, L-Dopa gives Parkinson’s sufferers more control
over their movement.
DEPRESSION
• Scientists think that there is a link between depression and
low levels of Serotonin (a neurotransmitter) in the brain.
• Serotonin transmits nerve impulses across synapses in the
parts of the brain that control mood.
• So scientists have developed drugs to increase serotonin
levels to treat depression.
MDMA (Ecstasy)
• Increases serotonin level in the brain.
• Usually serotonin is taken back into the presynaptic
neurone after use, to be used again.
• MDMA increases serotonin level by inhibiting it’s
reuptake by binding to receptor molecules that would
take it back up.
• MDMA also triggers the release of serotonin from
presynaptic neurones.
• This means that nerve impulses are CONSTANTLY
triggered in the parts of the brain that control mood.
• So, the effect of MDMA is mood elevation.