: STEADY EL.

CURRENT
UNIT
AND
5
CIRCUIT PROPERTIES
 5.1 Basic Principles
Electric current is the flow of charge, and
I = Q/t or ( I = dQ/dt )  Q = I.t  units …

Exercise1: How long does

–
a current of 4A
take to transfer a charge of
180 C ?

solution: I = Q/t  t = Q/I = 180C / 4A = 45 s.

 Conductors:
The electrons ( e- s ) in the outer shells of atoms remain
trapped within a metal, but are free to drift about inside it. It
is these e- s that form an electric current. They are called
conduction e- s, or free e- s.
The number of free e- s differs from material to material.
 Each conduction e- doesn’t belong to one specific atom. They
are collectively owned by the atoms in the crystal structure.
 Conductivity (  ), resistivity (  ), and resistance ( R ):
The ‘R’ of a wire depends on
three things -
 l Rl ,
A R  1/A,
 type of material 
R = . l
A
 = R.A/l   = .m, … ,
and 1/R = G ( conductance )
 G = 1/ = S (siemens)
 G = (1/)A/l = .A/l ,  = G.l/A  = S/m
 1/ =  ( conductivity )
Then:  = 1/.m = S/m  1S = 1/

Metals: resistivity in the order of 10 – 8 .m

Semiconductors: resistivity in the order of 10 – 3 .m
Insulators: resistivity in the order of 10 15 .m.

Exercise 2: A Cu wire has l =15km, A = 0.4cm2,

= 2x10-8.m, R = ?
Exercise 3: Constantan has  = 47x10 – 8 .m. If its
diameter is 0.8mm, how much wire is needed
to make a 940- resistor?

Solution:
wire:  = 47x10 – 8 .m, d = 0.8mm  r = 0.4mm, R= 940 ,
l=?
R = . l /A
 l = R.A/ = 940 x 3.14 x (0.4x10-3)2/47x10 – 8
= 1005m
 Drift velocity ( vD):
Drift velocity is the average velocity of an e- when it
moves from one end of a conductor to the other due to an
applied el. field.
The actual speed of the free e- s is in the order of 106 m/s.
 Current density ( J ):
Q=Ne with
n=N/volume
(number density)
Q=n.volume. e
=n.(A.s).e
with vD=s/t
Q=n.A.vD.t.e
with I=Q/t
I = n.e. vD.A
\I/A J= n.e. vD
J = n.e. vD
Definition: Current density is current/cross-sectional area.
J = (I/A)uD = (I/A) uE
and J  E ,  J = E ,
Exercise 4: Find the current density in a copper wire when
the el. field strength is 5V/m.
( Cu: resistivity  = 2x10 – 8 .m )
Solution: E = 5V/m,  = 2x10 – 8 .m, J =?
 J = E = 1/x E = 5/(2x10-8) = 2.5 x 10 8 A/m2
Exercise 5: Find the number density of free e-s in a copper
wire of cross-sectional A=0.8mm2 carrying a
current of 2.4A and the drift velocity of the e-s is 2.8x10 – 4m/s.
Solution: n =? A=0.8mm2 , I = 2.4A, vD = 2.8x10 – 4m/s,
 J = n.e.vD
 n= J/e.vD= 2.4/( 0.8 x 10-6 x 1.6x10-19x2.8x 10-4)
=6.7x1028/m3
· emf () and internal resistance (r):

 = Vi + Vter
voltage drop across
Vter= I.R external resistance
R voltage drop across
Vi = I.r internal resistance

N.B.: .  = const, r = const,

but Vi, Vter, and ‘I’ not const because of ‘R’
. I = /Rtot = /(r + R)
 Exercise 6: A 12-V battery has an internal resistance of 3,
and it is connected to a 21- external resistance.
Determine: a) the terminal voltage
b) the internal voltage drop,
c) the el. energy supplied by the source to the
load in 5minutes.
d) the power dissipated by the internal
resistance.
e) The percentage of the power dissipated by the
internal resistance relative to the total power.
Solution:  = 12V, r = 3, R = 21,
a) Vter=?  Vter= Rext.I and I = /Rtot , Rtot = 3 + 21=24
 Vter= 21 x (12V/24)= 10.5V
b) Vi=?  Vi= I.r = 0.5A x 3 = 1.5V
c) Since V=W/Q  W= V.Q = V.I.t = 10.5Vx0.5Ax300s=1575J
d) Pi = V.I = 1.5V x 0.5A = 0.75W
e) perc. = ? perc. = Pi/P tot
= 0.75W/(12x0.5W) x 100%=12.5%
  Combining resistors: See Grade 10 In series:
1) ‘I’ is the same
. In series : (RT)series = R1 + R2 + R3 + … 2) ‘V’ is added
. In parallel: 1/(RT)parallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + …

Exercise 7: RAB =? ( total resistance of the network )

In parallel:
1) ‘I’ is added
2) ‘V’ is the same

Solution: 1/100 + 1/25 = (1+4)/100  100/5=20

20 + 40 = 60, 1/30 + 1/6 = 1/30 + 1/6 = (1+5)/30
 30/6 = 5
 Rtot = 60 + 5 = 65
5.2 Kirchhoff’s laws
1.) Kirchhoff’s junction rule: “ The current that flows into a
junction equals the current that flows out of it.”
 I1 + I2+I3 = I4+I5

By convention, flowing in = +ve, and

flowing out = -ve

The junction rule results from the law

of conservation of el. charge!
2.) Kirchhoff’s loop rule: “ In any closed loop in a circuit,
the sum of emfs equals the sum of p.d.s .”
This rule results from the law of conservation of el. energy.
Rules: (i) Draw loops in the circuit diagram as many as
necessary; i.e. until each resistor and battery is part
of a loop and label them. Label all currents, too!
As a result a circuit element can be part of many loops!

(ii) Along a loop:

(iii) If a current value is negative, its direction must be

reversed. The value will NOT be affected.
Exercise 8: Part of a circuit network is given here. Find the
current in resistors B and C.

Exercise 9: Find the current in

each of the
the resistors.
Solution:

1
2
. HW: Find each current; ( Rtot , and I )

Fig. A bridge
circuit
 5.3 Measuring instruments
Very small currents are measured with a very sensitive
ammeter called a galvanometer ( GM or G ).
To extend the range of a GM, a selected resistor is connected
to it in parallel. This resistor is now called a SHUNT!
The GM is adjusted with a
full-scale deflection.
Exercise 10: A GM that has a full-scale deflection of 5mA is
to be converted into a 10-A ammeter. If the
internal resistance of the GM is 50, what value SHUNT
must be fitted?

Exercise 11: The current in a circuit is 0.03A before an

ammeter is added. When the
ammeter is added, it reads 0.02A.
Calculate the resistance of the
ammeter.
Ans:
 A galvanometer (GM) can also be used to measure voltage.
To extend the range of a GM as a voltmeter, a selected
resistor is connected to it in series. This resistor is now called a
MULTIPLIER !
Exercise 12: A GM has a full-scale deflection of 120mV
and an internal resistance of 40. If you want
to convert it to a 5-V voltmeter, what multiplier must be
connected to it?

Exercise 13: Before a VM is added to the circuit, the

current was 3mA. If the VM
reads 4V, how much does the
current become?
Solution 12: GM V = 0.12V, R = 40, to be measured V = 5V, RM =?
 mult. V = 5V – 0.12V = 4.88V,
Since they are connected in series, IG = IM  VG/RG = VM/RM
 RM = VM . RG/VG = 4.88V x 40 /0.12V= 1627
5.4 The Wheatstone bridge and the potentiometer
The Wheatstone bride is the most accurate method to
measure resistances.
When the circuit is balanced, i.e. VC = VD ,
then IG = 0.

 VAD = VAC
VDB= VCB potential differences
 R1.I1 = R3.I3 and R2.I2 = Rx.Ix
I2=I1 and Ix=I1

R1.I1 R3.I3 R2 x R3
= Rx = R
 R2.I2 Rx.Ix  1
Exercise 13: A Wheatstone bridge is set up as the shown in
the figure. Find Rx.
 The potentiometer:
It is an adjustable potential divider. It has a slide contact
I to adjust to some desired
potential.
Express VL in terms of R1 and R2.

Solution:
 = VL + V1 and I = /Rtot. VL =  - V1, V1= R1.I, Rtot=R1 + R2L
1/ R2L = 1/R2 + 1/RL  R2L= R2.RL/(R2 + RL)
VL =  (R2.RL /(R1. R2 + R1.RL + R2.RL) for RL >> R1 & R2
VL = . R2/(R1 + R2) The ‘’ is divided by the circuit in
in proportion to R1 & R2.
Exercise 14: A thermistor is connected in the circuit. Its ‘R’
varies with temperature:
at 0oC RTH=12k,
at 25oC RTH=250,
at 60oC RTH=100, …
Find the output p.d. (VL) at 0oC and at 25oC.
( RL >> RTH & 4k )
Exercise 15: The circuit shows a touch sensor. When a finger
is placed over the contacts X & Y,
the VM reads 3.6V. What is the
el. resistance of the skin?
 RTH x 12V
VL=
RTH + 4k
= 9V at 0oC
and similarly VL= 0.7V at 25oC.