Amplification: Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004

Amplification Chapter 6
 Introduction
 Electronic Amplifiers
 Sources and Loads
 Equivalent Circuits of Amplifiers
 Output Power
 Power Gain
 Frequency Response and Bandwidth
 Differential Amplifiers
 Simple Amplifiers
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004 OHT 6.1
Introduction 6.1
 Amplification is one of the most common processing

functions
 Amplification means making things bigger
 Attenuation means making things smaller
 There are many non-electronic forms of amplification
 Non-electronic amplifiers
– Levers
 Example shown on the right is a
force amplifier, but a displacement
attenuator
 Reversing the input and output
would produce a force attenuator
but a displacement amplifier
 This is an example of a
non-inverting amplifier (since the
input and output are in the same
direction)
A lever arrangement
 Non-electronic amplifiers
– Pulleys
 Example shown right is a force
amplifier, but a displacement
attenuator
 This is an example of an
inverting amplifier (since the input
and output are in opposite
directions) but other pulley
arrangements can be non-inverting
A pulley arrangement
 Passive and active amplifiers
– levers and pulleys are examples of passive amplifiers
since they have no external energy source
 in such amplifiers the power delivered at the output must
be less than (or equal to) that absorbed at the input
– some amplifiers are not passive but are
active amplifiers in that they have an external
source of power
 in such amplifiers the output can deliver more power than is
absorbed at the input
 Non-electronic
active amplifiers
– an example is the
torque amplifier
shown here
A torque amplifier
Electronic Amplifiers 6.2
 Can be passive (e.g. a transformer) but most are

active
 We will concentrate on active electronic amplifiers
– take power from a power supply
– amplification described by gain
Vo
Voltage Gain ( Av ) 
Vi
Io
Current Gain ( Ai ) 
Ii
Po
Power Gain ( Ap ) 
Pi Circuit symbol
Sources and Loads 6.3
 An ideal voltage amplifier would produce an output

determined only by the input voltage and its gain
– irrespective of the nature of the source and the load
– in real amplifiers this is not the case
– the output voltage is affected by loading
 Modelling the input of an amplifier
– the input can often be
adequately modelled by
a simple resistor
– the input resistance
 Modelling the output of a circuit
– all real voltage sources have an output resistance
– for example, a battery can be represented by an ideal
voltage source and a series resistance representing its
output resistance
 Modelling the output of an amplifier
– similarly, the output of an
amplifier can be modelled
by an ideal voltage source
and an output resistance
– this is an example of a
Thévenin equivalent circuit
(we will return to such circuits
later)
 Modelling the gain of an amplifier
– can be modelled by a controlled voltage source
– the voltage produced by the source is determined by
the input voltage to the circuit
Equivalent Circuits of Amplifiers 6.4
 Having modelled the input, the output and the gain,

we can now model the entire amplifier
 The use of an equivalent circuit
(see Example 6.1 in the course text):
Example: An amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, an input

resistance of 1 k and an output resistance of 10 . The
amplifier is connected to a sensor that produces a voltage of
2 V and has an output resistance of 100 , and to a load of
50 . What will be the output voltage of the amplifier (that is
the voltage across the load resistance)?
 We start by constructing an equivalent circuit of the
amplifier, the source and the load
 From this we can calculate the output voltage:
Ri
Vi  Vs
Rs  Ri
1 k
 2 V  1.82 V
100   1 k
RL
Vo  AvVi
Ro  RL
50  50 
 10 Vi  10  1.82  15.2 V
10   50  10   50 
 The voltage gain of the circuit in the previous
example is given by:
Vo 15.2
Voltage gain ( AV )    8.35
Vi 1.82
– note that this is considerably less than the stated gain

of the amplifier (which is 10)
– this is due to loading effects
– the gain of the amplifier in isolation is its
unloaded voltage gain
 An ideal voltage amplifier would not suffer from
loading
– it would have Ri =  and Ro = 0
– consider the effect on the previous example
 If Ri = , then
Ri R
 i 1
Rs  Ri Ri
 Therefore
Ri
Vi  Vs  Vs  2 V
Rs  Ri
RL
Vo  AvVi
Ro  RL
50  50 
 10 Vi  10  2  20 V
0   50  50 
– the effects of loading are removed (see Example 6.3)

Output Power 6.5
 The output power Po is that dissipated in the load

resistor
Vo 2
Po 
RL
 Power transfer is at a maximum when RL = Ro

– maximum power theorem
– choosing a load to maximize power transfer is
called matching
– often voltage gain is more important than power
transfer
Power Gain 6.6
 Power gain is the ratio of the power supplied to the

load to that absorbed at the input
Vi 2 Vo 2
Pi  Po 
Ri RL
 For numerical example see Example 6.5 in set text

 Gain often given in decibels
P2
Power gain (dB) =10 log10
P1
 Sample gains expressed in dBs
Power gain Decibels (dBs) Power gain Decibels (dBs)
100 20 0.5 -3
10 10 0.1 -10
1 0 0.01 -20
 Using dBs simplifies calculation in cascaded circuits
 Power gain is related to voltage gain
P2 V22 / R2
Power gain (dB)  10 log10  10 log10 2
P1 V1 / R1
 If R1 = R2
V22 V2
Power gain (dB)  10 log10  20 log10
V12 V1
Power gain (dB)  20 log10 (Voltage gain)
 This expression is often used even when R1  R2

– see Example 6.7 and Example 6.8 in the course text
Frequency Response and Bandwidth 6.7
 All real amplifiers have limits to the range of

frequencies over which they can be used
 The gain of a circuit in its normal operating range is
termed its mid-band gain
 The gain of all amplifiers falls at high frequencies
– characteristic defined by the half-power point
– gain falls to 1/2 = 0.707 times the mid-band gain
– this occurs at the cut-off frequency
 In some amplifiers gain also falls at low frequencies
– these are AC coupled amplifiers
 (a) shows an AC coupled
amplifier
 (b) shows the same

amplifier – with gain in dBs
 (c) shows a DC coupled

amplifier – the gain is
constant down to DC
 The bandwidth is the
difference between the
upper and lower cut-off
frequencies …
 … or the difference
between the upper-cut-off
frequency and zero in a
DC coupled amplifier
Differential Amplifiers 6.8
 Differential amplifiers have two inputs and amplify the

voltage difference between them
– inputs are called the non-inverting input (labelled +)
and the inverting input (labelled –)
 An example of the use of
a differential amplifier
 Equivalent circuit of a differential amplifier
– one of the commonest forms of differential amplifier is
the operational amplifier – discussed in later lectures
Simple Amplifiers 6.9
 Operational amplifiers are relatively complex circuits

 Amplifiers can also be formed using a ‘control device’
– circuit is similar to a potential divider with one resistor
replaced with a ‘control device’ typically a transistor
A potential divider A simple amplifier
Key Points
 Amplification forms part of most electronic systems

 Amplifiers may be active or passive
 Equivalent circuits are useful when investigating the
interaction between circuits
 Amplifier gains are often measured in decibels (dBs)
 The gain of all amplifiers falls at high frequencies
 The gain of some amplifiers falls at low frequencies
 Differential amplifiers take as their input the difference
between two input signals
 Some amplifiers are very simple in construction

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Amplification Chapter 6

 Amplification is one of the most common processing

 Amplification means making things bigger

 Attenuation means making things smaller

 There are many non-electronic forms of amplification

 Can be passive (e.g. a transformer) but most are

 An ideal voltage amplifier would produce an output

 Having modelled the input, the output and the gain,

Example: An amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, an input

– note that this is considerably less than the stated gain

– the effects of loading are removed (see Example 6.3)

 The output power Po is that dissipated in the load

 Power transfer is at a maximum when RL = Ro

 Power gain is the ratio of the power supplied to the

 For numerical example see Example 6.5 in set text

 Using dBs simplifies calculation in cascaded circuits

 This expression is often used even when R1  R2

 All real amplifiers have limits to the range of

 (b) shows the same

 (c) shows a DC coupled

 Differential amplifiers have two inputs and amplify the

 Operational amplifiers are relatively complex circuits

A potential divider A simple amplifier

 Amplification forms part of most electronic systems

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