Technological science II

Dr.Oday.A.Abbo

Fundamentals of thermal fluid sciences (yunus cengel & robert turner)

 1-1 Introduction
• Thermal sciences can loosely be defined as the
sciences that deal with heat. The recognition of
different forms of energy and its transformations has
forced this definition to be broadened. Today, the
physical sciences that deal with energy and the
transfer, transport, and conversion of energy are
usually referred to as thermal-fluid sciences or just
thermal sciences.
• The design and analysis of most thermal systems such
as power plants, automotive engines, and
refrigerators involve all categories of thermal-fluid
sciences as well as other sciences. For example,
designing the radiator of a car involves the
determination of the amount of energy transfer from
a knowledge of the properties of the coolant using
thermodynamics, the determination of the size and
shape of the inner tubes and the outer fins using heat
transfer, and the determination of the size and type
of the water pump using fluid mechanics.
 Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody
has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy
can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today
the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy
transformations, including power production, refrigeration, and relationships among the
properties of matter.
One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the
conservation of energy principle. It simply states that during
an interaction, energy can change from one form to another
but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is,
energy cannot be created or destroyed. A rock falling off a cliff,
for example, picks up speed as a result of its potential energy
being converted to kinetic energy (Fig. 1–3). The change in the
energy content of a body or any other system is equal to the
difference between the energy input and the energy output,
and the energy balance is expressed Energy cannot be created or
as destroyed; it can only
change forms(the first law).
The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation of energy
principle, and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property. The second law of
thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy. For example, a cup of hot coffee left on
a table eventually cools to room temperature, but a cup of cool coffee in the same room
never gets hot by itself. The high-temperature energy of the coffee is degraded (transformed
into a less useful form at a lower temperature) once it is transferred to the surrounding air.

We all know from experience that a cold canned drink left in a room warms up and a
warm canned drink put in a refrigerator cools down. This is accomplished by the transfer
of energy from the warm medium to the cold one. The energy transfer is always from the
higher temperature medium to the lower temperature one, and the energy transfer stops
when the two mediums reach the same temperature. Energy exists in various forms. In
heat transfer, we are primarily interested in heat, which is the form of energy that can be
transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature difference. The science
that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is heat transfer.
 In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per
unit time) than we are with the amount of it. For example, we can determine the
amount of heat transferred from a thermos bottle as the hot coffee inside cools from
90C to 80C by a thermodynamic analysis alone. But a typical user or designer of a
thermos is primarily interested in how long it will be before the hot coffee inside cools
to 80C, and a thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this question. Determining the
rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times of cooling or heating, as
well as the variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat transfer

The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a

temperature difference. There can be no net heat transfer
between two mediums that are at the same temperature. The
temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer; just
as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current,
and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow
2-BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The
mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. These
terms are illustrated in Fig.1. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Note that the boundary is the contact surfaces hared by both the system and the
surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it
can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or

a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system (also known as a control
mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is,
no mass can enter or leave a closed system,
as shown in Fig. 2
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a
properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting
the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass
and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume. This is
illustrated in Fig.

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are

pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include
less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal
expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation. Not all
properties are independent, however. Some are defined in terms of other ones. For
example, density is defined as mass per unit volume.

Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known

substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4C, for which ρH2O 1000 kg/m3). That is,
 Amore frequently used property in thermodynamics is the specific
volume. It is the reciprocal of density (Fig.) and is defined as the volume
per unit mass:

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive

properties are those that are independent of the size of a system,
such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are
those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system.
Mass m, volume V, and total energy E are some examples of extensive
properties. An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive
or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with a
partition, as shown in Fig

Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties

(with mass m being a major exception), and lowercase letters are
used for intensive properties (with pressure P and temperature T
being the obvious exceptions). Extensive properties per unit mass
are called specific properties. Some examples of specific properties
are specific volume (γ= V/m) and specific total energy (e= E/m).
 3-PURE SUBSTANCE
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.
Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure substances. A pure
substance does not have to be of a single chemical element or compound, however. A mixture
of various chemical elements or compounds also qualifies as a pure substance as long as the
mixture is homogeneous. Air, for example, is a mixture of several gases, but it is often
considered to be a pure substance because it has a uniform chemical composition (Fig.).
However, a mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance. Since oil is not soluble in water, it
will collect on top of the water, forming two chemically dissimilar regions. A mixture of two or
more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the chemical composition
of all phases is the same (Fig.). A mixture of ice and liquid water, for example, is a pure
substance because both phases have the same chemical composition. A mixture of liquid air
and gaseous air, however, is not a pure substance since the composition of liquid air is
different from the composition of gaseous air, and thus the mixture is no longer chemically
homogeneous. This is due to different components in air condensing at different
temperatures at a specified pressure.

Nitrogen and gaseous air A mixture of liquid and gaseous water is a pure substance,
are pure substances but a mixture of liquid and gaseous air is not.
 Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a
substance is called an equation of state. Property relations that involve other
properties of a substance at equilibrium states are also referred to as equations of
state. There are several equations of state, some simple and others very complex.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the
ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-υ-T behavior of a gas quite
accurately within some properly selected region
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words. The vapor phase of a substance
is customarily called a gas when it is above the critical temperature. Vapor usually
implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation. Experimentally determined
that at low pressures the volume of a gas is proportional to its temperature. That is

where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant. Equation above is
called the ideal-gas equation of state, or simply the ideal-gas relation, and a gas that
obeys this relation is called an ideal gas. In this equation, P is the absolute pressure, T is
the absolute temperature, and υ is the specific volume. The gas constant R is different for
each gas (Fig.) and is determined from
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (also called molecular
weight) of the gas. The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is

The molar mass M can simply be defined as the mass of one mole (also called a gram-
mole, abbreviated gmol) of a substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol (also called a
kilogram-mole, abbreviated kgmol) in kilograms. In English units, it is the mass of 1 lbmol
in lbm. Notice that the molar mass of a substance has the same numerical value in both
unit systems because of the way it is defined. When we say the molar mass of nitrogen is
28, it simply means the mass of 1 kmol of nitrogen is 28 kg, or the mass of 1 lbmol of
nitrogen is 28 lbm. That is, M = 28 kg/kmol =28 lbm/lbmol. The mass of a system is equal
to the product of its molar mass M and the mole number N: